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1

JAPAN.

By SAMUEL MOSS MAN,

AUTHOR OF " NEW JAPAN : THE LAND OF THE RISING SUN," ETC.

WITH ILL us TRA TIONS.

HonTlon : I

^

SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
CROWN BUILDINGS, i88, FLEET STREET.

1880.

{All lights reserved. ]

LONDON :
GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,

ST. John's square.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

Geography and Topography i

CHAPTER n.
Origin and Social Condition 32

CHAPTER III.

History, and Political Condition .... 52

CHAPTER IV.
Military Organization 71

CHAPTER V.
The Navy loi

CHAPTER VI.
Education and Religion 121

iv ' CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

PAGE

Language and Literature 151

CHAPTER VIIL
Arts and Manufactures 175

CHAPTER IX.
Produce and Trade 195

CHAPTER X.
Sciences — Fauna— Flora, etc 213

-^ < --

JAPAN.

CHAPTER I.

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.

Scarcely a generation has passed away since the
Japanese emerged from their oriental exclusiveness
and entered the comity of western nations, with a
rapidity unparalleled in ancient or modern history.
Previous to the new era of progress, the shores of
Japan were jealously guarded against intercourse
with foreigners by a warlike feudal oligarchy.
Hence our knowledge concerning the land and the
people was of a meagre character, and that mostly
erroneous, if not wholly imaginary. Since the open-
ing up of the principal seaports to foreign traffic,
and the residence of Europeans at the settlements,
with privilege to travel in the interior, the curtain
of concealment has been raised, so that the country
and its inhabitants are now seen in all their natural

B

2 JAPAN.

features. To observant travellers, scenes of intense
interest are everywhere presented to the view
which many have faithfully described and illus-
trated. It is the purport of this unpretending
volume, to give a concise account of the past and
present condition of the nation from the most
authentic sources.

Japan, according to native nomenclature, is
derived from Jeih Pun^ which, freely translated,
signifies, the " Land of the Rising Sun,^' and the
country took this name from its geographical posi-
tion at the extreme of Eastern Asia, bounded by
the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. This term,
however, being of ancient Chinese origin, is now
altered to Nippon, and also specifically applied to
the largest island of the group. The number of
islands, islets, and insular rocks, comprised within
the limits of Japan proper, exclusive of the Loo
Choo Isles, has been computed at 3850. These
are situated betvv^een latitudes 30° 35' and 45° 30'
N., longitudes 129° 146° E. ; the principal islands,
commencing at the south, are Kiusiu, Sikok, Nip-
pon, and Yezo. They are separated on the west
from the continent of Asia, by the Strait of Corea
and Sea of Japan ; on the north, from the Island
of Saghalien by La Perouse Strait^ and are bounded
by the Pacific Ocean to the south and east.

VOLCANOES.

Throughout their whole length, from north to
south, they are intersected by a mountain chain of
comparatively uniform altitude, and in many places
peaks rise into the region of perpetual snow. This
range divides the water-shed pretty equally to the
coasts on all sides ; but the streams are of limited
extent, especially for navigation ; at the same time
they are numerous, and flow into excellent har-
bours.

In its geological character this mountain chain
is formed chiefly of volcanic rocks, where internal
forces find vent, and earthquakes are, in conse-
quence, of frequent occurrence. On Kiusiu, in the
department of Fizen, near Nagasaki, there is a
volcano with several craters, formed by the sinking
of the summit, after a devastating eruption. Sat-
suma, the southern department of that island, is
entirely volcanic, and the soil more or less im-
pregnated with sulphur, while in some places it
forms into mounds, which are constantly fuming,
or in a state of ignition.

Sikok, the smaller of the four great islands,
separated from Kiusiu by the Bungo Channel, is
comparatively free from active volcanoes. These
progress across the narrow Strait of Simonosaki,
which is scarcely a mile wide, and separates the
islands of Kiusiu and Nippon. Then stretching

B 2

4 JAPAN.

along the mountain chain to the eastward, the
forces culminate in the grand volcano of Fusi-
yama ("sacred mountain"), situated about the
middle of Nippon, and seventy miles to the west-
ward of Yedo— now known as Tokio, or '' Eastern
capital." This volcano Is the highest peak in Japan,
rising to an elevation of 13,977 feet above the level
of the sea, forming a perfect snow-capped cone,
which is visible in clear weather within the radius
of about a hundred miles. Not only is Fusl-yama
the highest, but it is the most active volcano in
Japan. The records of Its eruptions and their
violence, will vie with those of Etna and Vesuvius.
One occurred in 1799 A.D., which lasted thirty-four
days ; the ashes ejected from the crater covering
the whole flanks of the mountain, and the streams
of water In the vicinity assuming a red hue. Five
years afterwards It burst out again with even
greater violence, when new craters opened up on
all sides, sending forth gigantic flames, accom-
panied by loud crashes of thunder and blinding
lightning. This continued for ten days and nights,
with shocks of earthquakes, when at length the
lower part burst with a tremendous explosion,
devastating the country for a space of thirty
leagues, with showers of sand, cinders, and molten
lava. The ashes were driven beyond Yedo, seventy

FUSIKAMA : THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN IN JAPAN.

Paoe 4.

EHMTDGE CASTLE, KIOTO.

Page 21.

RIVERS. 5

miles distant, where they fell several inches thick.
There arc many other volcanoes of note, which it
is not necessary to enumerate. These will suffice
to show that the active volcanoes of Japan, as
safety valves for hidden fires, render earthquakes —
more or less violent — of daily occurrence.

As already remarked, the rivers of Japan are not
remarkable for their volume or length, simply
because there is no great extent of country between
the water-shed and the sea. Though small, how-
ever, they are numerous, and most of them rapid in
their course from the mountain springs. The stream
of most importance, is the Yodo-gawa_, i. e. Yodo-
river, which flov/s from Lake Biwa in the Province
of Gokinaii, on a branch of which the ancient
capital of Kioto is situated, formerly the residence
of the Mikado. Next in rank is the Tenrio-gawa,
or " River of the Heavenly Dragon," which has its
source in Simano, and passing through Tootomi
disembogues by three mouths into the sea. Next
comes the Sumido-gawa, with its sources in the
mountainous country between Kootsuke and Mu-
sasi, where Yedo or Tokio is situated. It flows
through the latter district, and scon separates into
two branches ; the western receiving the name of
0-gawa falls into the Gulf of Yedo, through the
centre of Tokio, which is watered by branches and

6 JAPAN.

canals, the largest being named Nada-gawa. Over
one of the canals is the celebrated Nippon Bas, or
*' Bridge of Japan," from whence distances are com-
puted throughout the empire. Over some of the
rivers iron bridges have been built, and recently
the introduction of short railway lines has neces-
sitated the construction of viaducts.

Lakes in Japan form even a smaller space in
the geography of these islands than the rivers.
Their number can be counted on the ten fingers ;
but the principal one is of picturesque beauty, and
worthy of some description. This is Lake Biwah,
a sheet of fresh water, about forty miles in length,
and averaging ten miles in breadth ; it has received
this name from its shape, that of a musical
instrument, like a guitar or lute, a favourite
with Japanese musicians. As we have stated, it is
the source of the Yodo River, on a branch of which
the ancient city of Kioto stands, within eight miles
of the lake ; there the Mikados and their luxurious
courts passed the summer-time. At the east point
is the town of Otzu — a third-rate town, though of
considerable size — just before entering which, the
visitor obtains from a ravine, a beautiful opening
view of the lake. Not only are boats plentiful, but
steamers now ply to places on the lake, where
formerly a foreigner could not penetrate. The hills

LAKE BIWAH.

on the eastern shore rise grandly from the water to
heights varying from looo to 3000 feet. Here roads
are made equal to any highways in Europe, and
frequently running through avenues of old trees,
which lend them shade and beauty ; while the lake
on one hand, and a charming bit of country on the
other, rising gradually to the hills, combine to make
a landscape of rare loveliness. The lake is well
furnished with fish, which are caught by stakes
laid in the form of the letter V, with traps
at the end, so arranged that the fish, after getting
into the maze of stakes, swim along till finally caged
in a small space, where they are easily caught.

If Japan cannot boast of her rivers and lakes,
she can proudly point to the never ending variety
and beauty of her ocean waters, which, with a
thousand arms, entwine the archipelago within
their loving embrace, and by their frequent tem-
pestuous moods have protected the island from
invasion. Wherever the shores arise on the
horizon to tlic navigator, at all points of the
compass, they present a rocky, iron-bound coast,
with turbulent currents and -whirlpools, which
necessitate precaution in making a landing.
Moreover, although the bays, inlets, and harbours,
are numerous, yet the v/aters are comparatively
shallow, so that the approaches to any port arc

8 JAPAN,

dangerous, by reason of the shoals and sunken
rocks. This was the geographical cause of Japanese
excluslveness ; since the borders of the realm had
a rocky mountain barrier, with unknown channels,
which whilst deterring foreign ocean vessels of
large tonnage from entering their harbours, were
at the same time, easily and safely entered by
their own small flat-bottomed craft. Now that
steamers of the largest tonnage, and their own
ironclad war-vessels navigate these waters, the
Japanese have had the dangerous parts of the
coasts illuminated by lighthouses, pilots appointed,
and buoys laid down. As to the maritime survey
of the principal shores, these having been delineated
with soundings on the British Admiralty charts,
the Japanese Government, relying on their accuracy
have adopted them, and so saved some expense.
But as yet the land has not been surveyed, except
in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki Harbour, the
entrance to Yedo Bay, and some other localities,
which our surveyors have mapped as minutely as
any English harbours. The Japanese authorities,
however, have in contemplation a trigonometrical
survey of the whole country, when they possess
the means of doing so. Meanwhile, a commence-
ment has been made in some of the mining districts,
where gold, silver, copper, and other metalliferous

CLEAR WATERS OF THE JAPANESE SEA. 9

minerals are found, by competent foreign surveyors
and engineers. The Japanese themselves have a
genius for surveying, and produced maps more
than two centuries ago, which will compare with
European maps of the period. We have before us
a native m.ap of the islands, and plans of the
principal cities, which bear out this statement.

On approaching the shores of Japan from the
coast of China, the contrast between the limpid
waters of the former, and the turbid sea of the latter
is remarkable. From Shanghai to Nagasaki the dis-
tance is less than 500 miles ; and when the voyager
has left the pea-soup coloured waters of the Yang-
tsze estuary, bounded by its low marshy banks,
fairly behind, he soon finds himself in sight of the
islands of this Eastern archipelago. If the season
be summer, and the weather propitious, as he
nears the ' land of the rising sun,' at early morn,
and the mist clears away around the horizon, every
hour brings the panorama of the Nagasaki coast-
line clearer to the view. Looking down on the
surrounding w^ater, the yellow opaque tint has
changed into an ultramarine sea of deep blue.
Right in front, and inclining a little on either side,
an irregular mountainous country appears. The
hills and numerous islets are covered with luxuriant
vegetation, and a bright clear atmosphere render-

lo JAPAN.

ing the distant landscape unusually distinct, present
as great a contrast to the land and waters he has
left behind as can well be conceived. Hills, rising
range above range, with glimpses of charming
valleys, bright with every tint and shade of green ;
gentle grassy slopes dotted with neat-looking
houses and hamlets ; numberless secluded coves,
each with its fishing village irregularly lining the
shore, and its waters dotted with trim-looking
white-sailed fishing-boats, appear on every side.
The harbour is about four miles long, having a
width of a mile and a half to three-quarters, and a
depth of water at the entrance of sixteen fathoms,
decreasing to eighteen feet near the landing-places
of the town and foreign settlement.

Nagasaki nestles closely at the base of some well-
wooded hills, the best sites on which have been
reserved for temples and tea-houses. There are
62 of the former and 760 of the latter, with an
estimated population of 60,000. Of the natural
beauties of the country round this ancient city,
its wooded hills, its shady dells, its sparking rills,
description fails to convey the living pictures that
rise up before the rambler in all directions. Let
him take a boat into the bay, and swim in its clear
cool waters, or indulge in bathing from the beach,
or in one of the retired nocks near the foreign

NAGASAKI. II

settlement. Let him walk to the * Maiden Dell/
and disport in the sparkling waters of its cool
grotto-formed ravine ; or let him mount the so-
called * Russian hill/ and see all southern Japan
like a map at his feet, or take a peep down the bay
from the charming out-look over Tomatz, and
he will find that fresh beauties meet him everywhere.
But Nagasaki has a melancholy interest to the
European traveller. Besides its splendid harbour,
and ever-present picturesque landscape the islet of
Takoboko, known as * Papenberg,' over whose sheer
cliff to seaward thousands of native converts to
Christianity were hurled to death in time of per-
secution, gives a sorrowful turn to the mind of
the spectator. Then looking towards the south of
the city he is reminded of the old Dutch factory,
on the artificial island of De-sima where they
retained, on unworthy terms, the monopoly of
foreign trade for more than two centuries. But the
remnants of that factory are now swept away, and
the traffic is carried on at the foreign settlement
by all strangers. It lies along the coast on a
narrow strip of ground where the places of business
are situated, but most of the merchants have
charming bungalows on the rising ground behind.
These are tastefully built, each surrounded with
gardens producing all kinds of vegetables, fruits

12 JAPAN,

and flowers, and commanding landscape scenery
of extraordinary beauty. Since the opening of
new treaty ports in Eastern Nippon, this old settle-
ment in Kiusiu has been neglected. Nevertheless,
there is still a population of about 200, besides
the native employes, engaged in general trade, or
the superintendence of such works as the Dock,
Patent Slip, and Coal-mining industry. To the
jaded residents in the unhealthy climate of Shang-
hai and other Chinese treaty ports, it is a favourite
resort in the summer and autumn, and. invalids
flock to this delightful sanatorium.

From Nagasaki the steamers bound for the
eastern ports of Nippon, pass through the narrow
Strait of Simonosaki^ which divides it from Kiusiu
by a channel at one place not more than half-a-
mile wide. At all times there are tidal currents
running through the channel with rocks on either
side, reminding us of the famous classic Strait of
Messina with Scylla and Charybdis on either shore.
But steam navigation has moderated the dangers
of both the Italian and Japanese straits, which
formerly were the dread of all pilots. However,
in taking his departure from Nagasaki, the captain
of a steamer times his voyage to pass through its
'gates,' in daylight. If the start be made about
midnight, the morning opens up the pictu-

STRAITS OF SIMONOSAKI. 13

resque shores of Kiusiu bay to the northwards, and
the course towards the west entrance to Simonosaki
Strait, which lies between capes, and islets of various
sizes and attractive appearance. If the day be
fine, the scenery is charming.

With a good run the steamer reaches the en-
trance to the straits, famous in the new annals of
Japan for the bombardment of Simonosaki by
the British fleet in 1865. Not only does the
foreigner become interested in viewing the land
on either side, which was gallantly defended by
batteries, and war-ships off the town, but as there
are generally m.any Japanese passengers by this
route, they join, with native admiration, in watch-
ing the progress of the steamer through these
natural portals to the wondrous Inland Sea. At
the entrance, a picturesque island, with a lighthouse
upon it, is passed, built by foreign engineers after
the latest improvement on dioptric principles, with
the lantern poised so as to stand earthquake shocks
unimpaired. Here the lighthouse-keeper is roused
by the shrill whistle of the steamer, when he
comes hastily to the front, and hoists the Japanese
ensign of the " Rising Sun."

Through the strait the course is tortuous, steering
at first in a northerly direction and then easterly,
when the vessel seems surrounded by the land on

14 JAPAN.

all sides. As the boat progresses a distance of
some ten or twelve miles, a varying panorama of
great beauty discloses itself at every mile. On
either hand rise high lands, sometimes wooded
from base to summit, sometimes diversified by hills
clear of timber but " with verdure clad," sometimes
crested with trees, sometimes fringed at the foot
with forests, or with strips of bright green turf
or yellow sands. (Rocky heights rise behind,
with sparse tufts of vegetation, or stunted shrubs
on their sides, showing the effects of severe weather,
or riven clefts into which bountiful nature has
crowded trees, lending majesty to the smiling fore-
ground.) Bays and inlets of enticing picturesqueness
appear, where trim native craft of various dimen-
sions are seen at anchor, while clean-looking
villages, lying low near the beach or built up the
hills in terraces, give life to the scenery. Rounding
the last point, which, like several others, seems to
bar all further advance, the spectator is induced to
fancy, perhaps not regretfully, that the huge steamer
must remain landlocked within this terraqueous
paradise. The fortified city of Simonosaki then
looms in the distance on the northern shore of waters,
the strait widening at every mile. Slowly the pic-
ture unfolds its details and discovers to the view
a walled town with many large buildings stretching

INLAND SEA. 15

along the shore for several miles, and for some
distance Inland. But this port Is not open to foreign
traffic, so the steamer pursues its course to the east-
ward, passing several Islets, and another narrow
strait, until it emerges Into a wide expanse of waters.
This Is termed in Japanese nomenclature, the
Stcwo Nada, signifying the " Sea of Suwo," a Keiiy
or department on the Nippon shore, which formerly
belonged to the Daimio, or feudal lord of that title.
There are four other similar expanses of ocean
waters to the eastward of SImonosaki Strait, namely
Two Nada, Bingo Nada, Harinia Nada, and Isitma
Nada. These minor seas are formed between the
islands of Sikok and Nippon, of various widths
from north to south, and extending from 131^ to
135° 30' of longitude east of Greenwich, or about
250 miles. The waters flow from the North Pacific
Ocean, through Bungo Channel on the west side
of Sikok, and on the east by Kii Channel.
Assuming the average width (irrespective of the
numerous Isles that diversify these placid waters,)
at twenty miles, the area of the whole may be
computed at 5000 square miles. This large extent
of landlocked Inlets being so unusual, British
hydrographers who have surveyed and sounded
its length, width, and depth, have given it the
appropriate name of the *' Inland Sea." Hence

1 6 JAPAN.

this appellation has been adopted by the- Japanese,
and foreigners alike, as brief and comprehensive.

Steaming into the Suwo Nada, during the fine
weather usual in summer and autumn, nothing can
surpass the pleasure of opening up the prospect
in the afternoon and evening. Bright sunlight,
toned by white fleecy clouds -in the deep blue sky
above, and refreshing green all round the ultra-
marine sea, accompanied with a light wind and
genial temperature, the voyager will find, amidst
the merry foam of the steamers' paddles, an en-
joyment in traversing the Inland Sea, in the Land
of the Rising Sun, that has no parallel in the
world. Occasionally fishing-boats with their white
sails reflecting the sunbeams, skim gracefully along,
and wild sea-fowls wing their flight past the vessel.
Then, as night sets in, the scenery becomes separated
by so many miles of water that it is veiled in a
gauzy haze ; until the steamer reaches the Iwo
Nada, and threading its course through numerous
islands, the pilot is cheered by the sight of a light-
house at the entrance to Bingo Nada, and another
on the mainland leading through more islets, to
the entrance of Harima Nada, when the dawn of
early morn eclipses the pharos as the lamp becomes
extinguished.

Formerly the navigation of the Inland Sea was

HIOGO. 17

intricate and dangerous, but now it is accon:iplished
in all safety by careful pilots, with ten lighthouses
and numerous beacons provided by the Japanese
Government to direct their course. Crossing
Harima Nada, a degree in length, the steamer
reaches the west entrance to another narrow strait,
leading into Isumi Nada. The passage along these
northern shores is more rugged but less pleasing
than the scenery of Simonosaki Strait. However,
as the land appears at the entrance to Hiogo Bay,
the prospect is picturesque and full of interest ; all
the more so as a treaty port lies along its coast,
where the steamer comes to an anchor, landing pas-
sengers and cargo. From the Inland Sea vessels
enter the bay by the short narrow Strait of Akashi,
to the north of Awadji Isle, while vessels from
Yokohama or Yedo Bay use the Isumi Strait or
Nino Channel.

Few better places for a foreign settlement could
be found in the far east than that now occupied
by foreigners at Hiogo. That is the official name,
but locally and popular^ the natives frequently
refer to it as Kobe. Both city and settlement are
situated on a low tract of land, stretching along
the coast of the province of Setsu, and varying from
a mile and a half to four miles in width towards
the hills to the westward ; while on the east lies

1 8 JAPAN.

the native suburb of Kobe, and next to it the foreign
settlement. Commanding as it does the markets
of Central Japan, and forming a connecting link in
the chain of ports open to trade, from north to south,
the settlement quickly sprang into importance after
its opening in the beginning of 1868. The settle-
ment stands on a sandy patch of ground, and
covers an area between one half and one third of a
mile square. The houses are, of course, new, and are
mostly very neat structures. A substantial stone
wall is built along the sea-front to protect the site
from devastating typhoons which occur. A pier
has been built by the government for the protection
of small craft, and the harbour is well lighted for
the safe anchorage of large vessels. Another pier
is built three hundred yards long for the terminus
of the railway now finished from Osaka, twenty
miles long. There are about three hundred
foreigners in the settlement, with some five hun-
dred Chinese. The native city is very extensive,
and said to have a population of sixty thousand ;
all more or less engaged in manufactures and
commerce, imparting a bustle and liveliness to the
streets like any European city.

A greater city, however, is situated at the ex-
treme east of the Inland Sea, and not more than
twenty miles in that direction from Hiogo across

OSAKA. 19

the Isumi Nada. This is Osaka mentioned above,
which the topographers have used as a name for
the entire waters, namely, Osaka Gulf. Between
the two places there is communication by road and
rail skirting the base of a range of hills^ but most
travellers prefer the water-way. Nearly a dozen
small steamers carry passengers to and fro all day
long, giving a European and noisy character to the
quiet waters. The trip occupies about two hours
and a half, crossing the estuary of Yodo-gawa with
a bar at the entrance. This is a dangerous impedi-
ment to navigation,, and has been an obstacle to
Osaka becoming a great seaport, as well as a
commercial city. Five miles above, the river is
lined at all times with native craft, and others
favoured by wind and tide rushing along with their
beautifully white sails swelling to the breeze. There
is a large tract of flat country between the mouth
of the river and Osaka, partly below the level of the
water, which is banked in. To meet the expendi-
ture in maintaining improvements, the government
charge entrance and clearing fees on native boats.

Arrived at the foreign settlement the steamer
stops at a convenient quay, about 100 yards long,
on which are the Custom House, Telegraph Office,
and the Oriental Bank Agency. The foreign settle-
ment lies between the landing-place and the city

C 2

20 JAPAN.

proper. It is an irregular square bounded on three
sides where the river surrounds it, and bisected by
two thoroughfares thirty feet wide. The settlement
is well laid out, and in its broad streets stand some
fine old trees, which shelter the place in hot weather.
It was opened in 1868, but only about sixty
residents have taken up their abode there. The
native city is large and important, and is one of
great antiquity. Its population is stated to be not
less than half a million, and the inhabitants used to
boast in warlike times that they could raise an aimy
of 80,000 men. It is planned with some care, having
broad, clean streets^ and approached from the settle-
ment by substantial bridges thrown across branches
of the river, which, naturally and artificially, are
diverted from tlie main stream and intersect the
city at various points. One of these is an iron
screw-pile bridge with neat lamps, put up by a
wealthy Daimio, who imposes a tax for the accom-
modation. The streets are gay with shops and ware-
houses, where all sorts of wares are to be had at reason-
able prices, and thronged by stirring passengers on
foot and in vehicles. The latter are chiefly drawn
by men, something like a bath chair, wide enough
for two sitters, and named jfijtrickshazv, a compound
of Japanese and Chinese, signifying " man-power
carriage." In like manner there are carts drawn by

KIOTO. 21

men, consisting only of a few planks laid on a pair
of solid wooden wheels, admirably suited to carry
merchandise about. There are so many city
attractions about Osaka, that it has received the
name of the Paris of Japan. The most noteworthy
place is the castle, built by Taiko-sama some cen-
turies ago, when he roused the Japanese to warlike
energy by invading the kingdom of Corea. At the
north-east verge of the city is the Imperial ]\Iint,
the plant having been purchased at Hong-Kong,
where it failed. Under the superintendence of an
English staff it succeeded admirably, and continues
to do so with Japanese management, the former hav-
ing been paid off, when the latter became proficient.
Not far from this city stands one still more ancient
and imperial, which for centuries was the Miaco, or
Metropolis of Japan, where the Mikados, or Em-
perors, held sway over the whole islands, before the
advent of the Christian era. This is Kioto, already
mentioned, as being situated on a branch of the
Yodo River, near Lake Biwa, and about thirty
miles north from Osaka. From there the river
route is slow, in consequence of the strong current,
which necessitates the native boats ascending the
stream to be pulled by trackers. By that tedious
mode of boating the traveller reaches the town and
castle of Yodo, giving to the river the name which it

22 JAPAN.

bears from thence to the sea. Three miles further on
Fushimi is reached at the junction of the branch
stream, twenty-five miles from Osaka, and about five
from Kioto. That distance is accompHshed along an
excellent road where jinrickshaws are provided for
travellers, some having two men drawing them in
tandem fashion. Houses line the road all the way,
closely, and sometimes deeply; and a fertile country
stretches behind, till it is broken by the surrounding
hills, within which Kioto is enclosed as in the arena
of an amphitheatre. From an eminence on the east
side of the city, a bird's-eye view is obtained of the
surrounding plain, on every side bounded by hills.
The city is about three miles and a half in extent
from east to west, and five miles from north to south.
An insignificant stream, named the Kamogawa,
flowing from the mountains to the north, meanders
through it, engrossing a wide bed, and spanned by
numerous wooden bridges.

There is no foreign settlement at Kioto, but it has
been open to foreigners several months during the
past few years, to witness exhibitions formed after
the model of those held in England and other Euro-
pean countries since 185 1. Visitors during these
shows have been charmed with their reception, and
dehghted with the aspect of this ancient metropoHs,
which has been abandoned by the Emperor and his

DIGNITARY OF THE OLD COURT OF KIOTO.

Page 23.

OLD IMPERIAL COURT. 23

court since 1868, when he moved to Yedo. Look-
ing northwards from the eminence mentioned, the
spectator can see in front the castle of 0-shiro, the
former residence of the Shiogoons, when they visited
Kioto, and now occupied by the governor and his
staff. Eastward of this the Emperor's or Mikado's
palace of Gosho rears its stately fabric ; but nov/ it
is tenantless, except by care-takers of the buildings.

The annexed illustration shovvS the costume worn
by a dignitary of the old Court, when Kioto was
the imperial residence. Since its removal to Tokio,
the Mikado and dignitaries have assumed Euro-
pean uniforms.

To the westward stands the great temple of Ken-
ninji on a height ; and lower down towards the
south, another, named Honganji, both in use for
the exhibition buildings. Tier upon tier, and in
close proximity along the sides of the hills, are
temples of various sizes and celebrity, from the one
containing the colossal image of Dai Butz, or
" Great Buddha," to the smallest wayside shrine.
In the neighbourhood of the Mikado's late residence
is the aristocratic quarter, but the removal of the
court has emptied it of its wealthy residents, and
consequently diminished the population depending
on their patronage. In the days of its prosperity
there was seldom less than half a miUion of inhabi-

24 JAPAN.

tants in the city, and now it ranges from 250,000 to
300,003. It is well laid out on a regular plan, wide
and clean streets cross each other at right angles,
along which a carriage and pair might be driven,
and the houses^are mostly of the better class, as buiit
in Japan.

Returning to Hiogo, the traveller prosecutes his
voyage to the foreign settlement of Yokohama, and
the new capital of Tokio, by way of the Kii Chan-
nel, the eastern outlet of the Inland Sea. The
course at first is due south until the vessel enters
the Pacific Ocean, when, after rounding Cape Siwa,
it is changed to east-north-east. The distance to
run is upwards of four hundred miles, the greater
part of which is so far out at sea that less of the
land is seen than when skirting the coast, and the
picturesque scenery is left behind. Nevertheless
on approaching Yedo Bay, there is a good deal to
interest the spectator at its entrance, and as the
ship progresses up this extensive harbour the grand
outline of Fusi-yama rises boldly on shore, as a
beacon of perpetual snow guiding the mariner to a
secure haven.

Yokohama is the principal foreign settlement in
Japan, in consequence of its proximity to the
capital, from which it is distant about eighteen
miles. Before it became a treaty port, only a

STREET IN YOKOHAMA.

Page 25.

LADIES IN WALKING- ATTIRE.

Page 48.

YOKOHAMA. 25

small fishing village occupied the site, containing
about a thousand inhabitants ; but the population
then rapidly increased, until it now numbers
about 20,000 natives, and foreign residents of more
than a dozen nationalities. The town covers ground
which was formerly occupied by rice-fields and
vegetable gardens, forming part of the flat land
which extends along the shores of the bay, and is
backed by a kind of semicircle of low richly-
wooded hills. The original site Is about a mile
long, and from a quarter to half a mile in width ;
but it has been greatly extended, by reclaiming
the marsh lands between It and the hills. A large
Custom House has been erected near the centre
of the settlement ; the foreign allotments being en
the east side of It, so that foreigners and natives
dwell apart. A broad and deep canal has been
dug round the town, and Is connected with the bay
at each end. The houses of the foreign merchants
are generally one storied bungalows built almost
entirely of wood and plaster. The native town Is
remarkable for one fine wide street that runs
through the centre. Here are exposed for sale the
various productions of the country In very large
quantities. Bronzes, carvings in ivory, lacquer-
ware, and porcelain, are all duly represented. The
foreign trade at this port has fluctuated from year

26 JAPAN.

to year, as the demand for tea, silk, and other pro-
duce has altered with merchandise also ; but the
last returns show that the import and export trade
exceeded seven millions sterling.

Yokohama is connected with Tokio or Yedo, by
a well-built railway, about eighteen miles in length.
It was opened by the Emperor in person on the
14th October, 1870. The line runs nearly parallel
with the Tokaido, or imperial highway which inter-
sects the greater part of Nippon, and passes through
Kanagawa at this locality. There are several
stations beyond, as the train traverses a picturesque
and fertile country in the south-western suburb of
Tokio. This name signifies " Eastern capital," and
was given to it in 1868, to distinguish it from the
western capital, also to obliterate the name of
Yedo, or '' Bay Door," after the overthrow of the
Shiogoonate. The Mikado took up his permanent
residence in the following year. The city was
originally formed by connecting together a great
number of scattered villages, around a central
castle, surrounded with moats and f6rtifications.

As Osaka has received the sobriquet of the
Japanese Paris, so may Tokio be designated the
London of Japan, from its area and population
exceeding those of any other city in the far East
and approximating to that of the metropolis of

roKio. 27

Great Britain. Its area has been computed at
about thirty-six square miles, while that of London
is some fifty or more in superficies. But the com-
parison loses in detail where the one is a kingdom
of houses, or as it is sometimes called " a wilderness
of bricks and mortar," which at every elevated point
displays a solid mass of building with only small
patches of foliage In the parks to relieve the dull
prospect. These characteristics are reversed in
Tokio, where greenery prevails in the landscape,
and the greater part of the buildings are hidden,
especially in summer and autumn, by the groves
and gardens that intersect the roads and paths in
every direction. This arises from its foundation
from a great cluster of scattered vdllages, and none
of the buildings being of an imposing character, in
consequence of the ground being subject to earth-
quakes. It has been aptly compared to a great
metropolis built in a forest without cutting down
the trees. This is apparent to the traveller if he
wends his way to Atangayama, a hill which affords
an extensive prospect of the western part. The
road is sinuous, with some variety of hill and dale,
and frequently crossing running streams, continually
passing beautiful hedges, enclosing alike the dwell-
ings of the rich and poor, also gardens and groves,
and occasionally the wild and thickly-wooded

28 JAPAiY.

preserves of the nobility. At the summit of the
hill reached by a long and wearisome flight of
steps is a broad plateau covered with small wooden
buildings open at the sides and furnished with
seats, while lanterns are suspended from the ceil-
ing. Here the traveller may sit down, and enjoy
a cup of aromatic tea, with an extensive and varied
prospect of the city before him, like what may be
seen of London from Primrose Hill. In the fore-
ground ranges of buildings like barracks may be
seen, which formerly were occupied by the re-
tainers of Daimios, but now by government officials.
To the eastward near the centre of the city, the
extensive castle and palace grounds can be seen ;
and here and there gilded roofs of temples rising
above the trees ; but points at a greater distance
are concealed by intervening groves. Nevertheless
the observant traveller can see that he beholds
before him an exceedingly great city.

Under the present Government, Tokio is divided
into six districts, each of which is subdivided by
sixteen smaller sections, making a total of ninety-
six blocks, each having a police-station for its
jurisdiction. These divisions are new to the in-
habitants, who cling to the old names posted up in
the streets and roads. For convenience, foreigners
have the following divisions on the map : — ist

TOPOGRAPHY OF TOKIO. 29

Inside the moats, comprehends O Shiro, Mam
no Uchi, and Sotognnnva, or all the parts west-
ward within the moats. This section contains the
castle, called O Shiro, the buildings occupied by
the Supreme Council, the Barracks of the Im-
perial Body-guard, the Artillery, several infantry
barracks, the offices of the various Government
departments, parade-grounds, the Imperial schools
and colleges. Foreign Legation residences, and
numerous dwellings of high officials. A com-
paratively small portion of ground is occupied for
business purposes. It is now, as formerly, the
official quarter of the capital. 2nd, TlIE CiTY
Proper comprises the section between the Sumida
River, v;hich intersects the city and the eastern
moat of the castle ; and between Kanda River and
the canal facing the railway station. This is the
business quarter, and almost every street and road
is occupied by shops, storehouses, and places of
trafiic. It is the most densely populated portion of
Tokio. Through the main street passes the Tokaido
or great highway, and numerous canals crossed by
substantial timber bridges traverse it, in connexion
with the river, as shown in the illustration. 3rd,
North Tokio comprises all that part situated to
the west of Sumida river, and north of Kanda stream,
of the outer moat, and of that part of Koji Machi^

30 JAPAN.

extending westward. Here are the great temples
and pleasure grounds of Asaknsa and Uyefto, and
the extensive Yashiki grounds formerly belonging
to the Daimios or princes of Oivari, Alito, Kaga^
and others, but which are now the property of the
Imperial Government, being appropriated to the
use of the different departments. 4th, EAST
TOKIO comprehends all that section lying east of
the dividing river, like the Surrey side of the
Thames. It is intersected by numerous canals,
leading to timber-yards, warehouses, and docks
for building vessels. It is the least interesting
part of the metropolis. 5th and last division.
South Tokio lies to the southward of the outer
moat, the Naval College and oi Koji Machi, Here
are numerous temples and domains formerly used
by the nobility as country seats, but now divided
into small holdings, and turned into rice-fields, and
vegetable gardens, besides mulberry and tea planta-
tions, which extend also to the suburbs in all direc-
tions. Tokio is supplied with fresh water obtained
from a reservoir nine miles distant, and conveyed
by wooden pipes into the city. According to the
official census there are 185,951 houses in the
capital, and a population of 823,240 persons, in-
cluding the inhabitants of some suburban villages.
There is no foreign settlement here, but there are

POPULATION OF TOKIO. 31

many foreigners of various nationalities resident
within the precincts of the city. These comprise
ambassadors, and members of embassies, consular
officers, missionaries, hotel-keepers, and others.
Besides these, an important portion of the foreign
community are paid employes of the government,
such as professors in the colleges, civil engineers,
naval instructors, steam-packet managers, and
others, who will be noticed under the chapter on
educational institutions.

JAPAN.

CHAPTER II.

ORIGIN AND SOCIAL CONDITION.

Various opinions regarding the ethnological
origin of the Japanese as a race have been enter-
tained by foreigners ; but no work on the subject
— if there be such — written by natives or Chinese
has been translated into any European language.
Most of the information obtained relates to the
political history of the people and country, while
as regards prehistoric eras, they are involved in
mystery and mythology. Among the most com-
petent authorities who have investigated the evi-
dences of their origin in the islands, and on the
mainland of Eastern Asia, are Kaempfer and
Siebold, Dutchmen ; Klaproth, a German ; and,
Golovnin, a Russian ; who agree in the opinion
that the people of Japan did not derive their
origin from the Chinese, as is generally supposed
by Europeans. Siebold in his writings surmises
that their early ancestors came from the Tartars
inhabiting the north-eastern part of the continent

AINOS OF YEZO. 33

of Asia. Kaempfer, Klaproth, and Golovnin dis-
sented from that opinion ; and the last-named
writer considers that their origin is buried in the
obscurity of antiquity ; but maintains " that the
Japanese and Kuriles once formed the same
nation, and are descended from the same stock."
The latter race inhabit a chain of small islands
between Yezo, Saghalien, and Kamptschatka, the
first belonging to the Japanese, and the two last
to the Russians. The inhabitants are semi-bar-
barous, and have been so for ages ; while they
more or less assimilate with the anthropology of
the natives of Yezo. A remnant of this interest-
ing people still exists, living in their ancient
patriarchal simplicity^ and these may be con-
sidered the mitochthones^ or indigenous people of
Japan. This remarkable race when first asked
their name, replied " Aino," which in their primitive
language signifies " Man," or men, so they have
come to be designated as a race of Ainos. Their
abodes are confined entirely to the Isle of Yezo, not
one of them residing on the islands of Japan
proper ; and yet they differ in their physique and
characteristics from the Japanese, as much as the
barbarous inhabitants do of any isle in the Pacific
Ocean, distant thousands of miles. Von Siebold,
with his usual acumen, and experiences of the

D

34 • JAPAN-.

race, traces their origin to a remote period when
they migrated from the mainland, and occupied
the sea coasts of all the Japanese Isles as fisher-
men, an occupation vv^hlch they follow chiefly to
the present day. The Dutch professor adds : —
" The annals — which have come to us — in which
the migration of the Aino tribe Is described, are
of ancient date, and yet a ray of civilization
seems to have enlightened It, even in Its cradle. In
the same way the history of its separation from
the rest of the world counts thousands of years,
during which no progress either Intellectual or
social has taken place among them. Under these
circumstances, after so many thousand years^ we
still find the Ainos, on the lowest step of patri-
archal civilization, which, with their separation
from the rest of the world and under the rule of
the bold Japanese, they have not had energy
enough to go beyond."

So far, a solution of the problem regarding the
descent of the Ainos, or indigence of Japan, and
their relation with neighbouring nations on the
mainland, may serve to Illustrate the remote an-
tiquity of the people ; and prove that they inhabited
the islands many centuries, nay, thousands of years
previous to their Invasion by the now dominant
race. From all accounts within the historic era.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ALVOS.

j:?

which can be traced back from twenty-five to thirty
centuries in the annals of China and Japan, the
earhest of these migratory invaders were of the
great Mongol race, and crossed over to Nippon,
from the northern provinces of China, and the
peninsula of Corea, which is the nearest point to
that island. From this influx of Chinese invaders,
no doubt exists that the present Japanese are
descended ; and the Ainos relatively occupy a
position analogous to the ancient Britons, and
their conquerors from the continent of Europe.
But the comparison does not apply to their de-
scendants in the present generation ; for on the one
hand the opposing races have amalgamated into
one homogeneous people, whereas the other tribes
have never mingled, each retaining their distinct
natural characteristics.

This is abundantly evident to the traveller com-
ing from the civilized inhabitants of Nippon, seen
in all their glory from Tokio to Hakodadi, across
Tsugar Straits, which separate the great island from
Yezo, and upon which the latter treaty port is
situated. Proceeding northwards from the foreign
settlement he will soon come to the territory ex-
clusively occupied by the Ainos. These people are
essentially an unmixed race, exhibiting scarcely
greater difference than may be found in a flock of

D 2

36 JAPAN.

sheep. As a rule, compared to ordinary races of
mankind, they are short, thickset, and compact in
their bodies ; with large heads, low foreheads, rather
thick but not flat noses, well-formed features and
black eyes. But their leading characteristic is the
abundance of hair which distinguishes them, as a hir-
sute people ; more so than the most bearded Euro-
peans, and particularly so in comparison with the
Japanese and Chinese, who may be considered as
beardless races. The men have long shaggy locks,
with bushy beards and whiskers, so that the face is
nearly covered with hair. Not only is the head
something like a hairy mop, but the yellow skin
over their bodies and limbs is more or less covered
with hair, presenting an appearance between that of
the chimpanzee and gorilla. They are obliged to
shave the front of the head to prevent the thick
hair obscuring the eyesight. The women have no
beards, their bodies are smooth, and not so yellow in
the skin, but many of them have a downy hair on
their cheeks, which gives them rather a repulsive
appearance ; while the hair of the head is shorn all
round, so that it does not hang down. Others let
it grow long, and twist it up into a knot, and their
eyebrows and lips are coloured black or blue. All
of them, men, women, and children, have their ears
pierced, and wear silver earrings, also rings of

CLOTHING OF AINOS. 37

beads, copper, and Armo-silk. Some travellers in
the most northern parts of Yezo have seen a woman
almost white, with long black hair, and in her ears
large blue bead chains ; and another with a pretty
face, having also long black hair, with a band of
sea-otter fur round her head, dressed all in fur, with
a little girl in a fur dress, and having a beautiful
sable fur band round her head.

The British Consul, Mr. James Enslie, recently
officiating at Hakodadi, furnishes us with the latest
information concerning these primitive people ;
which, in most respects, corroborates the state-
ments of Professor Siebold. He says that the
clothing of the Ainos is made of a coarse fabric,
woven from the bark of a tree and called by them
dicelsit. The garments worn by both sexes differ
but slightly in style, being similar to those worn
by the Japanese before the days of foreign inno-
vations, but more after the manner of the women
than the men. The latter shave their heads after
the fashion of the Chinese, leaving a tuft of long
hair on the crown, but instead of wearing it in the
form of a plaited quene, or tail, they twist it tightly,
and turn it back over the top of the head, like the
crest of some old helmet. Notwithstanding their
political subjection to the Japanese, the Ainos
have been permitted to retain most of their ancient

38 japan:

social habits, manners, and customs, as also their
religious faith and observances ; and they have
successfully resisted every endeavour that has been
made to cause them to shave their heads, after the
fashion of their conquerors, as the Chinese did in
submitting to the Manchoo Tartars, wearing the
long queue as a badge of subjection.

These primitive people retain their simple
domestic arrangements, as they have done from
time immemorial. Their dwellings contain but
one room, and are constructed by planting posts
in the ground, then surrounding and roofing the
framework with thatch. These huts have but one
aperture, which serves alike for door, window, and
chimney. Fish is their principal food, and they
frequently season it when cooking, with certain
roots which grow in abundance in the forests.
However, on festive occasions they regale them-
selves with fermented juice extracted from the
roots of a tree, which they call uiacka, producing a
highly intoxicating beverage. Numerous varieties
of fish are caught off the shores all round the isle
of Yezo, including salmon, also whales, walrus,
dolphins, and occasionally seals. The seal fishery
is of great importance, as these animals and their
skins are highly prized by both the Japanese and
Chinese.

THE A I NO women: 39

Marriage ceremonies are held amongst these
people in a very simple but singular manner, while
the sexes are faithful to the conjugal tie. Poly-
gamy is allowed if the man can afford the luxury,
and the women are obedient wives as well as
laborious helpmates. Though they are totally
devoid of any pretensions to beauty, their moral
qualities fully compensate for their personal plain-
ness. The Japanese always urge their Avives and
daughters to emulate the Ainoese ; and when a
respectable husband wishes to pacify the jealousy
of his own wives, he invariably reminds them of
the conjugal virtues of the Aino women. The
latter assist their husbands in all their occupa-
tions ; and hunting and fishing are as familiar to
the female as to the male sex.

A range of volcanic mountains trends in a north-
east direction from Hakodadi, also due north to
the isle of Saghalien, and the interior is covered
with dense forests and jungles, which abound with
bears, v/olves, and other wild animals. Hence the
inhabitants of Yezo, both Japanese and Ainoese,
live mostly near the sea-coast, and rarely travel
inland, except during the winter, for the purpose
of hunting. The climate of the island is very
variable. Changes of wind are frequent and sud-
den ; and though the thermometer rarely falls

40 JAPAN.

below 12° Fahrenheit during the winter, the average
range being 21°, the rapid changes of weather are
prejudicial to health ; and occasionally the winters
are so exceedingly severe, that travellers have been
found frozen to death on the public roads. The
Ainos, however, notwithstanding their thin and
scanty clothing, do not generally suffer much
from the inclemency of the weather, being, no
doubt, indebted for this immunity to the hardships
they are inured to from childhood.

Their language is primitive and poor, though
euphonious and easy to acquire. It differs but
slightly from that of the Saghalien dialect, and the
ancient Japanese bears a striking resemblance to
the Yezonese, both in words and grammar. The
art of writing is unknown to the Ainos, and as
their language possesses no written characters, they
have consequently no literature. As already
stated they are politically, and, in a measure,
socially, the slaves of their conquerors. They do
not belong to the island they inhabit, but to the
soil on which they reside. An Aino must die
where he was born. The fruits of his daily labour
belong to the OnjoshOj or customs, and in exchange
he barters his produce for rice, tobacco, spirits,
wines, and a coarse kind of linen, of which under-
clothing is made.

SERVILE CONDITION OF THE A IN OS 41

In concluding his interesting paper, Mr. Enslie
remarks : — " The servile and wretched condition
in which the Ainos are kept is the chief cause of
the rapid decrease of the race. Although an Aino
is a mere full-grown child, his thoughts frequently
wander back to the independence of his ancestors ;
he deeply regrets the bygone glory of his people,
and sarcastically asserts that his Japanese masters
only allow him to dance and drink ^^/^^^— Japan
wine. Certainly although the Japanese do not
actually treat the Ainos with absolute cruelty, they
seize every opportunity to show the supreme con-
tempt in which they hold them. They are not
even allowed to leave their native villages without
a passport, which is obtained with great difficulty,
and all the licence the passport affords is permis-
sion to visit Hakodadi, the capital of Yezo, and
on no account during their visit can they go any-
where in the city unless accompanied by a govern-
ment official.""

This weak, simple, and unwarlike race, was easily
subdued by the first invaders of the Japanese
islands, from the Asiatic continent, who thereupon
took possession of their territory. At what
period the first band of hostile intruders landed on
the shores of Japan, there are no records, or even
traditions to show. In all probability it began in

42 JAPAN.

a small way, and gradually increased until the mi-
gration reached such a magnitude, that the invaders
themselves, were the first to quarrel about the divi-
sion of lands so easily acquired, and which the
Ainos did not dare to defend. Moreover it does
not follow that they were all Chinese immigrants
of pure nationality ; for the Tartars, then and ever
since awarlike people, were nearer to the islands than
most of the Chinese. Indeed it is not illogical to
advance the suggestion that the people of Manchoo
Tartary were the first conquerors of Japan— as they
were subsequently of China— and that they were
the progenitors of the dominant race. Be that as
it may, there can be no doubt that these invaders,
and afterwards colonizers were not all purely
Chinese ; for the mixed race, though following to
a certain extent the language and governmental
system of China, yet had an independent dialect
and institutions of their own, while the ethnological
characteristics of the Japanese differ materially
from those of the Chinese.

Now comes the consideration of the early records
of Japan, to which there is such ample testimony
that the dates can generally be depended on, at
least as approximately accurate. These reach
back to the middle of the sixth century before the
Christian era, or reckoning from the present time.

INVASION OF JAPAN BY CHINESE. 43

2539 years ago. At that date both the Chinese
and Japanese annals agree in recording the con-
quest of the island of Nippon, and the foundation
of a monarchy. How this came about, and how many
men were engaged in the invasion, or the names
of their leaders, does not appear in history. These
are concentrated in one personage, who stands out
like a warrior giant among his fellow-conquerors,
and was named Zinmoo Tenno ; a namie, that
down to the present day, is held in sacred remem-
brance by the Japanese. He is regarded as the
founder of their empire, and the first of the heredi-
tary dynasty of Mikados — whom foreigners call
emperors — which has ruled that country, in unin-
terrupted succession, throu^^hout these twenty-five
centuries, unbroken by any other dynasty ; a fact
which has no parallel in the history of any other
nation on the world.

The best authorities regard it as extremely pro-
bable that Zinmoo, signifying " Divine Warrior,"
was of Chinese origin, and that his family had fled
from China during the disorders which agitated
that empire at the time it was ruled by emperors
of the Chow dynasty, and that he took refuge in a
country farther east. This conjecture seems more
probable from the fact, that the Japanese know
little or nothing of the occurrences in their own

44 JAPAN.

country prior to the epoch of Zinmoo. The con-
queror found Nippon ah'eady peopled, and only
settled in it at first with his family and followers.
Hence it appears that at this period the Ainos
were scattered all over the islands^ living chiefly in
their fishing villages, and in a more barbarous state
than their descendants are now. As Chinese civi-
lization spread in the western parts of the islands,
where Zinmoo and the other invaders landed, the
Ainos were gradually impelled towards the eastern
shores, and for that reason they received the denomi-
nation ofy4rj//;;/(^-j^^to, signifying eastern barbarians.
As the immigrants from the mainland increased
by the continued arrivals of females, so the popu-
lation became augmented by their greater fecundity
over that of the aboriginal women. Among these
Chinese settlers a case is recorded, that an expedi-
tion consisting of three hundred couples was sent
by the Emperor Che Whang-te, across the Eastern
Sea, in search of the fabulous '• Liquor of Immor-
tality ! " According to the Japanese annals, these
young people having sought for the drug in vain,
under the direction of Seu-fuh, a skilful Chinese
physician, then arrived in Japan B.C. 209, and
landed at Kuma in the southern part of Nippon.
The leader having introduced among the .settlers
a knowledge of some Chinese arts and sciences

DISPERSION OF AINOS TO YEZO. 45

unknown to them before, died on Fusi-yama, the
sacred volcanic mountain, and to this day the
Japanese pay divine honours at his shrine.

Meanwhile, as the colonists increased and
spread over the southern isles of Japan, including
Kiusiu, Sikok, and half of Nippon, the aborigines
were compelled to move northward, as they did
not assimilate with their conquerors. In all pro-
bability this arose from their repulsive appearance,
especially of the females ; but there exist ethno-
logical data frcm which we may infer that these
people did in some degree amalgamate with them
so as to account for the difference of complexion
and other characteristics between the Japanese and
Chinese. Be that as it may, the Ainos continued
to move northwards before the invading foe, until
they reached what is now the province of Mutau.
In consequence of the inferiority of this region,
and the coldness of the climate, they were allowed
to remain there for several centuries, living in their
state of semi-barbarism, without molestation, in
consequence of their pacific disposition. But
these simple qualifications were no protection
against the ever-increasing multitude of the Japa-
nese and their lust for new territory. In the
eleventh century of our era, they were completely
dispersed from Nippon, and driven across Tsugar

46 JAPAN,

Straits to Yezo, where lands were set apart for
their location, and orders given them to remain
there under certain pains and penalties if they
were caught in any of the other islands to the
south and west. Thus it would appear that these
simple people were not only despoiled of the rich
heritage they had acquired, but expatriated to
savage lands in the direction from which they
originally came.

From the foregoing sketch of the origin of the
Japanese, it will be inferred that they are not a
pure race, like the Chinese proper, but have an ad-
mixture of the blood from several races in their
veins. In this respect, therefore, the people of
Japan resemble the British race, formed by amal-
gamation of the ancient Britons, Romans, Teutons,
and Gauls. This variety of elements, moreover,
accounts for the vigorous mental capacity, exhibited
by both races, as compared to continental humani-
ties, so that in Islands and people Japan is the
Britain of the far East. At first sight the Japanese
seem greatly to resemble the Chinese In form and
exterior. Those who have carefully examined
their characteristic features, however, and com-
pared them with the Chinese, perceive a marked
difference between them. The eyes of the Japa-
nese, although placed as obliquely as those of the

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JAPANESE d- CHINESE. 47

Chinese, are wider near the nose, and the centre
of the eyelids appear drawn up w^hen opened. The
hair of the Japanese is not uniformly black, as
with the Chinese, but of a deep brown hue. In
children below the age of twelve, it may be found
of all shades, even to flaxen. There are also indi-
viduals to be met with, who have their hair com-
pletely black, and almost crisped, with eyes very
oblique, and a skin extremely dark. The com-
plexion of the lower orders appears yellowish ;
that of the inhabitants of the towns is diversified
according to their mode of life ; while in the
palaces of the great may be seen complexions as
fair and ruddy as those of European females. The
vagabonds in the highways, on the other hand,
have skins of a colour between copper and a brown
earthy hue. This is the prevailing complexion of
the Japanese peasantry, of those parts of the body
particularly which are most exposed to the sun.
The Japanese have skins resembling those of
potatoes, and the Chinese like yellow cabbages.

Writers of various nationalities Avho have visited
Japan concur in the strict division of classes ac-
cording to their status in the commonwealth ; but,
since the revolution and reforms that have taken
place, these have been considerably modified, espe-
cially among the higher classes, whose feudal rights

48 JAPAN,

have merged In the crown. Nevertheless it is
necessary to speak of them as differing from other
classes, in the same way that our own hereditary
nobility, whose ancestors possessed feudal rights,
differ from ordinary titular people. The Japanese
nobility, formerly known as Daimios, still hold to
their ancient provinces and districts, but only as
governors and government officials amenable to
the Mikado ; while their armed retainers now form
the elite of the national army drilled after the
European system. The military profession is held
in high honour, and formerly the inferior officers,
and even privates, were hereditary sold'ers, there-
fore they formed a distinct and dangerous class.
Merchants are numerous and rich, but they are not
allowed to bear arms, or rise to high 'rank; their
wealth, however, sometimes secures for them re-
spect and influence. The rights and privileges of
mechanics are almost the same as those of the
merchants, except what the latter acquire by their
riches. The architect, sculptor, brazier, and car-
penter, all stand on the same level. Peasants are
the lowest class, including all those who go into
the service of others to gain their livelihood by
bodily labours.

No individual in Japan is above the law, and all
its institutions tend to secure person and property

POLITENESS OF THE JAPANESE. 49

to a degree that is rarely known in Europe. The
Japanese are perfectly free and independent ;
slavery is a term unknown in the country, and a
former class of female household slaves is now
abolished. No one is compelled to perform any
labour without remuneration. An active workman
enjoys a high degree of esteem ; and the inferior
class of the people have few wants. The mildness
of the climate and the fertility of the soil give to
Japan the advantage of having all the necessaries
of life in such profusion, that they would suffice for
double its present population ; so that indigence
and pauperism are almost unknown. And the
relations between superiors and inferiors, founded
on mutual harmony, produce real content and
universal confidence.

Almost all writers concur in stating that the
Japanese of every rank and class are distinguished
for their politeness. In their intercourse with each
other, both young and old, they are extremely
polite. On meeting, they show respect by bending
the knee ; and when they wish to do unusual
honour to an individual, they place themselves on
the knee and bow to the ground. But this Is never
done in the streets — when they merely make a
motion as if they were going to kneel. When they
salute a person, they bend the knee in such a

E

50 JAPAN.

manner as to touch the ground with their fingers.
After the first compHments, they ask with great
ceremony and many bows after each other's
health, relations, and friends.

The dwellings of the Japanese are generally only
one story high, and built of wood, in consequence
of the frequent earthquakes. They have no stoves
in their houses, and but little furniture. The floor
is usually covered with clean, handsome m.ats, over
wdiich they often lay carpets. The walls are
covered with paper ; and in the houses of the
wealthy they are frequently inlaid with various
kinds of rare v.'ood, curiously carved and gilt. As
in Chinese houses, many of their apartments are
embellished with paintings of divinities, or with
other ornamental papers, on which are favourite
moral sentiments of philosophers and poets. In
some instances they have grotesque figures of birds,
trees, or landscapes painted on screens ; and in
most houses they have flower-pots filled with odo-
riferous flowers, or for want of these, with artificial
representations of flowers, impregnated with
odours.

To complete this sketch of the people and their
social condition, some account regarding the extent
of the population is required. While the Japanese
retained their exclusiveness, during what we may

POPUL A TION OF JAPAN. 5 1

fairly term their "dark ages," when the islands
were jealously guarded against the admission of
foreigners, all was conjecture on this point. The
Dutch, who were permitted to ^visit parts of the
country under certain restrictions, estimated the
population in round numbers to be about
20,000,000; butthe natives and government officials
were bound to be secret on that point as on all
others concerning the body politic. Indeed, the
ruling authorities themselves had very little reliable
data for their calculations, as the divisions of
territory were so numerous, and the inhabitants of
the various provinces, departments, and districts^
under the control of feudal proprietors, who were
jealous of giving accurate returns. It was not
until the great revolution in the state that over-
threw the thraldom of Daimios, and led to
the emancipation of the people, that the govern-
ment of the Mikado, after his restoration to his
ancient rights, ordered a census of the nation to be
made. This was accompanied with much diffi-
culty, but the system of topographical divisions
after the Chinese plan, facilitated the registration
of these statistics. Without entering into details,
and subsequent alterations, the latest census gives
the total population of the 3801 islands at
32,866,161.

E 2

52 JAPAN.

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY, AND POLITICAL CONDITION.

ZiNMOO, the " Divine Warrior," having consolidated
the rival parties among his countrymen and other
immigrants, established himself as the first Mikado
or monarch of the whole group of islands, which
were designated Nip-pon. He adopted the title of
Niu-o, signifying " the Supreme of all men," which
is perpetuated in the corrupted name of Te7t-no, for
the reckoning of the Japanese era to the present
time. Hence his first decrees were the introduction
of a system of chronology among his newly-formed
subjects, dividing the time into years, months, and
days. The system was based upon that of the
Chinese, where the months are lunar, and the years
classified by a cycle of sixty.

His next acts were to form a system of govern-
ment of a despotic character, rallying round his
standard the chiefs of the military parties among
the invaders. But he was sole autocrat, directing

ZINMOO THE FIRST MIKADO. 53

the civil and religious powers also, and pro-
mulgating laws for the guidance of judges and
priests. Hence arose the Japanese mythology of
the Kami, or gods, from whom he is considered to
have sacred descent, as Ten Sidy " the Son of
Heaven." According to the Japanese annals this
absolute monarch, the founder of his, the sole
dynasty of the empire, reigned seventy-nine years,
and secured the throne for his posterity. He is
said to have died when he had attained the age of
157 years, but that may be considered a pious
fraud on the credulity of the people, to hold his
name in reverence as that of a demi-god. His
third son succeeded to the throne, which he
occupied for thirty-three years. It was during his
reign that the Chinese sage Koiig-foo-tsze, or Con-
fucius, flourished, whose fame spread to Japan.

During the annals since " The Divine Warrior "
laid the foundations of the empire, a period
exceeding twenty-five centuries, the number of
successors to the throne of Zinmoo (now altered
to jfiui-inoo), has been 125 — or an average
of twenty years to each reign. To recount the
names and exploits of so long a series ofmonarchs
as are registered in Japanese annals, to mark the
years of their births and deaths, to describe the wars,
rebellions, earthquakes, fires, famines, and plagues

54 • JAPAN.

which have occurred during their successive reigns,
and to notice the introduction of new rehgions,
priests, idols and the building of temples, would
require a series of volumes like the present. There-
fore our remarks will be confined, and that briefly,
to the salient events in Old and New Japan, show-
ing the extraordinary transformation which has
taken place in the Government and body politic
of the realm.

After the death of Zinmoo, who ruled supreme
and undivided, his sons and their descendants re-
laxed their hold of the imperial reins ; and in the
course of time, through the weakness of their
grasp, the process of subdivision commenced, and
was repeated until the empire became broken into
fragments. Then every landed proprietor did
what was right in his own eyes, each holding
firmly to the land he had acquired, and trying — ■
often by force — to get what he could of his neigh-
bours'. Hence arose the feudal system in Japan,
which gradually increased in power, w*liile that of
the imperial rule was declining. For many
generations, two lines of claimants of the imperial
family contested for the throne, and, when their
claims were finally settled, that subdivision
followed of eastern and western rivals, which con-
tinued up to the revolution twenty years ago.

777^ DA /MI OS. 55

At that period the reigning Mikado held his
court at Kioto, which was also designated Miaco,
or the Metropolis, and was considered to have his
rule over all the islands and provinces to the west-
ward and south of that city. Apparently a barrier
or line of division extended across the island of
Nippon near that spot, beyond which a smaller
rival court was formed, which held rule over the
eastern and northern part of the country, known
as Kzvan-to, or " East of the Barrier," at Hakonay,
including the north provinces of Dewa and Mutz.
At one time this eastern power was held by the
family of Yoritomo of Kamakura, where their
princely domains were situated, near what became
the city of Yedo.

In 1184A.D., the reign of the Mikado Gotoba
commenced, and became memorable for the civil
wars among the Daimios or feudal nobility. These
warlike subjects, who governed their territories by
ambition, jealousy, and envy, abandoned by
degrees the duty and allegiance which they owed
to their legitimate sovereign, assumed an absolute
power in the government of their feudal domains,
entered into alliances with each other of an offen-
sive and defensive character, and carried on inter-
necine wars against each other, to revenge the
injuries they were supposed to have received, and

56 JAPAN.

in some respects they formed clans like those of
the ancient Scottish Highlanders. In this state of
affairs the Mikado despatched Yoritomo, who was
born at his court, at the head of a numerous army,
with absolute power to adjust the differences
between the contending Daimios, and put an end
to their strife. This he succeeded in doing, but
instead of returning to Miaco, he espoused the
interests of the strongest parties, and set him-
self at their head, as a rival ruler to the Mi-
kado.

This disloyal act of Yoritomo ultimately led to
the usurpation of a second hereditary rule in the
state ; the chief being designated Dai Shio-goojig,
which title foreigners afterwards corrupted into
Tycoon. So feeble was the imperial power then,
at the Mikado's court, that this title emanated
from him, and the holders of it were allowed to
live in independent state. Hence arose the mis-
take of foreigners visiting Japan in its days of
exclusiveness, that there were two emperors, one
spiritual, like a pontiff, and the other temporal,
like a king. Notwithstanding the low state to
which the court had fallen, the titles conferred
by the Mikado were never at any time despised.
At all stages in their history, the dynasty of these
monarchs has been faithfully acknowledged and

J DOUBLE MONARCHY. 57

reverenced, on account of its origin, and the as-
sumed sacred line of descent.

But for this, at one period the dynasty would
have been overturned by a warlike Shiogoon.
This was about 1580, when the great General
Taiko Sama, famed in Japanese history, estab-
lished himself as a military power in the realm, and
was permitted by his sacred Majesty to use the
title of Sei-i Tai sio goon^ or Generalissimo, for
subduing the barbarians ; that is, the inhabitants of
the northern and wilder territory of Japan. Yedo
was fixed upon as his capital^ and at first called
To-do, or Eastern Capital — similar to its present
name of Tokio, and having the same meaning.
Taiko Sama lived long enough to have his power
extended over the whole realm. But even he asked
and received from the hands of the Mikado, the
highest rank and title granted to a subject, his
family name being Nobonanga.

Thus, towards the close of the i6th century,
Japan became ruled by a double Monarchy — the
Mikados de jiire^ and the Shiogoons de facto — a
state of things which continued up to twenty
years ago. This success of the secondary power,
was in a great measure due to lyeyas, who suc-
ceeded Taiko Sama, but whose genius was more
of an administrative than warlike character. He

58 JAPAN.

was a man of superlative talent, and, before long,
reduced to peace and quietude the ebullition and
effervescence of a century. He was called emperor
by the Portuguese and Dutch writers of the time,
though he never assumed such a title. It was pro-
bably from witnessing his power, which was certainly
supreme in the country, that the distinction came
to be made by foreigners between a temporal and
spiritual emperor. No such distinction, however,
existed in Japan.

Without entering further into the history of succes-
sive Shiogoons, we come to the last of these func-
tionaries, who had to yield up his quasi-sovereignty,
after th:: defeat of his own army and the retainers
of his Daimio followers. He was a scion of the
great Mito family, named Tokugawa Yoshihisa,
and born in 1836. Thirty years afterwards, he
assumed the dignity and power of a Shiogoon, but
retained it only for two years, during a period of
anarchy and strife, not only with the Mikado's
forces, but also with the naval squadrons of Eng-
land and other foreigners, who assisted materially
in breaking down the exclusive barriers of his
rule. He was deposed by his sovereign in 1868,
and reverencing the sacred character of the Mikado,
he bowed to his decision, and now lives in peaceful
retirement.

REIGNING MIKADO SOLE MONARCH. 59

The reigning Mikado is named Miitrichto or
MntsJito, that being the title assumed on his as-
cending the throne in October, 1868. As already
stated he is the 122nd member of his dynasty
from Jim-moo or ZinmoOy its founder. He was
born in November, 1852, and is now consequently
in his twenty-eighth year. His Majesty left Kioto
on the 4th of November, and reached Yedo on
the 26th. Countless thousands of Japanese were
present in holiday attire on the occasion, min-
gling with the troops and officials. It was truly a
Japanese national ceremony and imposing in the
extreme.

Having deposed the last of the Shiogoons, and
abolished their hereditary power, the Mikado and
his powerful adherents, forming the first govern-
ment with legislative and executive functions, ap-
plied themselves energetically to abolish the feudal
system. This had existed for upwards of three
centuries, and from being a small body of land-
owners, they increased so as to become a powerful
oligarchy, of nearly two hundred and eighty barons
and princes, or Daimios ; each with a body of
armed retainers, many times greater in the aggre-
gate than the regular army of the Shiogoon.
Moreover, while the legitimate sovereign and his
court at Miaco, lived in comparative poverty on

6o JAPAN,

the small income of the imperial estate, these Dai-
mios revelled in riches, acquired from their lands
by industrious retainers bound to the soil. A list
of these feudal barons, their rank and incomes, is
now before us, showing the enormous amount of
their revenues, as estimated by the kohc of rice,
equivalent to fifteen shillings sterling. The
highest of the incomes was that of Mayedda, in
the province of Kanga, having the rank of Kok'-
shioo, amounting annually to 1,027,700 kokus of
rice, equal to about 768,450/. The lowest was
Tanoma Kay In the province of Towotomi, a Fudai
in rank, and having an income of 10,000 kokus, or
7500/. At an approximate computation of the
whole, their revenues amounted to 50,000,000
kokus, or about 37,500,000/. sterling. Had this
enormous income, or at least the revenue, after
the expenses of collection were deducted, been
paid into a national exchequer, under the imperial
power, then the Mikado could assume his position
as sovereign de facto, as well as dejure. This was
the policy of his adherents on his restoration, and
they succeeded in accomplishing their difficult
task.

However, the abolition of the Daimios and their
feudal system, was not effected without a sangui-
nary struggle between the contending parties. At

SATSUMA, LEADER OF THE DAIMIOS. 6i

one time those for and against the impending
coup d'etat, were nearly equal in numbers with
their retainers, and they might have been classed
as the south for the new policy, and the north
against it. The former, however, had the more
warlike leaders and bolder retainers, the chief of
whom was Satsuma, of the Shimadzoo family,
ranking as a Kok'shioo, with a revenue of 710,000
kokus, and established since the twelfth century of
our era. But the bearer of the Daimioship at the
time was a young man, who had succeeded his
father in 1856, he having abdicated in favour of
his son, although still wielding great authority.
Indeed, he not only controlled the Satsuma clan,
but he aspired to the leadership of all the southern
clans. His name, Shimadzoo Saburo, was held in
dread by all his neighbours, while foreigners also
experienced his tyranny, one visitor at Yedo hav-
ing been cut down by his retainers for daring to
look upon his person in a procession.

As the Mikado's Government continued to gain
strength, the power of the feudal Daimios rapidly
became weakened. This was mainly due to the
extraordinary facility with which the reformed
government and legislature practically adopted
political principles from the leading European con-
stitutions, more especially those of the British

62 JAPAN.

nation, which had gone through a similar dissolu-
tion of feudal rights. Moreover, among the fore-
most members of the aristocracy, several came
forward and voluntarily yielded up their feudal
authority and vested rights in their territories to
the Imperial Government. They also transferred
their retainers to be enrolled in the national army,
and their ships of war to form the nucleus of an
Imperial navy.

Among those who voluntarily yielded up their
feudal rights was Nagato of the Mowori family,
ranking as a Kok'shioo, with a revenue of 357,000
kokus, and who succeeded his father, like Satsuma,
while still living. His name was Chosiu, and like
Shimadzoo Saburo, he figured prominently in the
revolution, as well as the external wars with Eng-
land and other naval powers. After yielding up
the family lands and revenues to ihe Mikado's new
government, he and other Daimios, held office as
councillors, legislators, and governors. Then the
feudal ranks of the Daimios v\'ere abolished ; that
of Kazook substituted for nobles ; Sizook, for all
officials, and Potzok, a term applied to the gentry,
formerly Daimios with small incomes. The last-
named were the most stubborn in yielding up their
rights, and it was necessary to force them into
compliance, in order that the new constitution
should be homogeneous in its elements.

FEUDALISM ABOLISHED. 63

At length resistance became futile, and the list
of Daimios who gave in their submission was made
complete. Accordingly, the young Mikado, with
the advice of his constitutional ministers, issued
a decree abolishing henceforth the feudal system
in Japan. The edict was read in September, 1871,
to all the feudal Daimios assembled in the Imperial
palace at Tokio, by the President of the Council of
State, and in the presence of the Mikado, and
ran as follows : —

" It appears to me that in the time of reforma-
tion, if it be our desire to aid and make our people
liapp}^, and to take an honourable position with
respect to other nations, we should make the
reality correspond to the name, to centralize the
governmental power. I previously ordered the
Hans— ox feudal governments — to send up reports
of all their affairs, and appointed the Daimios to
be CJiiJniagis — or governors — and prescribed for
each their duties. How then can the people be
made happy } I deeply lament this state of things,
and now abolish the feudal governments and terri-
tories, and convert them into Imperial domains.
In performing your duties do away with all useless
matters, cleave to retrenchment, put aside all un-
necessary expenses, and abrogate all troublesome
laws. Do you, my servants, carry out this, my
mmd.

64 JAPAN.

This important act, however, though arbitrary,
was modified in some measure, by allowing the
ex-daimios to retain their mansions, and castles,
with certain areas of land, so that they should
uphold their dignity and status as noblemen.
Moreover, sums were to be annually voted out of
the consolidated revenue, for the purpose of giving
them and some of the former retainers a small
income, in lieu of what they had yielded up, which
was computed at a low rate of interest on the
capitalized estates. These allowances paid shortly
after the finances of the state were put in order,
amounted to 16,349,708 yen or dollars, about
4,'/6y,64S/. Those who were able to live upon
these incomes held to their government security,
but the needier class commuted their allowance,
which in the first year was covered by a vote of
5,096,200 jr;^, or upwards of a million sterling.

In the same financial year 950,000 yen was voted
for the Imperial household. Shortly afterwards
the palace of the Mikado at Tokio was destroyed
by fire, and it was mooted that it should be rebuilt
by means of a supplementary vote_, assisted by
wealthy contributors, w^ho offered to subscribe ;
but the young Mikado seeing that the times were
bad for the people, declined their loyal offerings,
and moved with his court into a smaller residence

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE. 65

in Oshiro, to await better times. This is a favour-
able trait in the character of this young sovereign,
v/ho is only now (1880) twenty-eight years of age.
In like manner the high officials of the government
have followed the economical example of his
majesty, and agreed to accept considerable reduc-
tions of their salaries.

The expenditure for the public departments at
that time, was 6,950,000 yen for the war department,
2,700,000 for navy and marine, and 4,750,000 yen for
public works ; which, including the expenses of the
imperial household, makes a total of 24,922,316 yen.
There w^as also an item of 5,000,000 yen for a
contingent fund, to be available if the revenue
should fall short of the estimates. Among other
items of expenditure was that of 4,345,655 yen, for
interest and redemption of the public debt, which
is as follows : — Internal debt, 33,064,849 yen —
nearly a third not bearing interest — and paper
currencies on various issues, 94,803,580 yen, mak-
ing together 127,808,668 yen for internal debt;
foreign debt 14,480,912 yen; total 142,289,580 yen.
The reserve funds amounted to 24,952,332 yen ;
and the loans for industrial and charitable purposes
12,594,988 yen, which is gradually coming back
to Government. The gross expenditure being
68,498,506 yen.

F

66 JAPAN.

To meet this expenditure the revenue from
various sources amounted to an estimated total of
6Z,^Z%;266 dollars or yen. The principal items
were the customs duties, which were put down at
only 1,744,837 yen ; duties on fermented liquors
and other products, 1,613,083 yen ; income from
taxes on public or government property, such as
railways, mines, and mineral produce, 1,841,754 yen ;
and repayment of funds to the Government,
borrowed by institutions for the improvement of
the people, 3,037,728 yen ; but the chief sources
of revenue were derived from the land assessment,
which superseded the levies of the Daimios on
their retainers^ and which was estimated to produce
51,505,967 yen. These estimates v/ere made by
the finance minister, Okuma Shigenobu, in the
financial year ending the 30th June, 1876, and the
actual receipts and payments corresponded ap-
proximately. These show that in the year named,
the income and outlay of the Mikado's government
was in round numbers about fifteen millions sterling.
Since then the items have altered annually, and
the totals have increased, especially the loans from
foreign countries, England being the principal
creditor, where the bonds are quoted at a premium.

In view of maintaining friendly relations with
foreign powers desirous of their alliance, the Mikado

TREA TIES WITH FOREIGN PO WERS. 67

and his government have entered into treaties of
amity and commerce with twelve different nations.
These are as follow : — Great Britain, France,
Netherlands, Belgium, German Empire, Denmark,
Russia, Austro-Hungary, Italy, United States,
Peru, and Spain. Legations have been established
by all of them at the capital for political purposes,
while Great Britain has consuls for business trans-
actions at Tokio, and the ports open to foreign
commerce by treaty ; where all disputed cases
between foreigners and Japanese are adjudicated
according to ex-territorial rights contained in
certain clauses of the treaties. The ports opened
by the treaty of Yedo in 1858, were Nagasaki,
Nee-e-Gata, Hakodadi, and Kanagawa. Subse-
quently the last-named port was exchanged for
the new settlement at Yokohama, but H.B.M.'s
Consular Court is still held at Kanagawa, and two
more ports were opened at Hiogo and Osaka.

In order to reciprocate the friendly relations of
the treaty powers having resident ministers and
consuls in Japan, it was resolved by the Govern-
ment to establish legations and consulates at the
capitals of Europe and America. Previous to de-
termining the arrangements for that purpose, three
missions were sent to examine and report. The
first two led to no particular action, but the third

F 2

68 JAPAX.

assumed the character and dignity of an Imperial
Embassy. It consisted of the following officers of
state, all of whom were men of the highest position
in Japan :— Ambassador Extraordinary, Sionii T.
Iwakura, junior Prime Minister; Associate Am-
bassadors, Jussammi T. Kibo, Privy Councillor ;
Jussammi T. Okuba, Minister of Finance ; Jushi
H. Ito, Acting Minister of Public Works, and
Jushie, M. Yamaguti, Assistant Minister of Foreign
Affairs, together with secretaries and interpreters,
making twelve in all with numerous attendants.

All the staff and junior members being ready,
they embarked on board an Am.erican steamer at
Yokohama in the autumn of 1871, and reached
their destination at San Francisco, where they
w^ere received by the United States authorities in
the most friendly manner. Their progress from
the Pacific State to those on the Atlantic sea-board
was delayed in consequence of an early and severe
winter setting in, which im.peded the railway traffic
over the Rocky mountains, so that it was not until
the beginning of 1872, that they arrived at Wash-
ington. Here they entered on their diplomatic
business^ and the first Japanese envoy at a foreign
state was appointed at that city in the person of
Mr. Mori, an official well versed in the English
language. Here, also, a change was effected in the

EMBASSY TO AMERICA AND EUROPE. 69

dress of the embassy. The members had started
in their native costume, but when they found it
awkward, and liable to promote ridicule among
strangers, this was discarded for European clothing
of the most sombre character, a change which has
since been carried out in Japan among all govern-
ment functionaries.

After visiting the chief cities and districts in the
States, they crossed the Atlantic and arrived in
England about the beginning of August, 1872,
dressed like English gentlemen. When they
reached London, another Japanese statesman had
arrived by the overland route, who had been
appointed by the Mikado, to be Envoy Extra-
ordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at the court
of St. James's. His name was Terashima Tozo,
previously minister for foreign affairs in Japan ;
and he was presented to her Majesty the Queen
at Osborne by Lord Granville.

Meanwhile the members of the embassy spent
their time in visiting the principal places in the
metropolis and its environs, accompanied by Sir
Harry S. Parkes, our minister at Yedo, and Mr.
W. G. Aston, interpreter of the British Legation.
Among the gatherings of the day, the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, were
holding their annual session at Brighton. In the

70 JAPAN.

geographical section the author of this volume had
his name on the list to read a paper on " the City
of Yedo," its topography to be illustrated by a
large native map. This was considered an appro-
priate occasion to invite the chiefs of the Japanese
embassy to be present. Accordingly they made
their appearance in the lecture-hall, and listened
attentively to the description of their new capital,
now named Tokio.

After finishing their tour of the British Isles,
they proceeded to the continent, when legations
were established at Paris, Brussels, Berlin, the
Hague, and St. Petersburg, together with consuls
and vice-consuls at the principal sea-ports. Hav-
ing placed these on a satisfactory footing, the em-
bassy returned to Japan, when the ministers resumed
their posts in the Government.

CHAPTER IV.

MILITARY ORGANIZATION.

Amidst the revolution and progress of Japan, the
most remarkable events have been the reforms in
almost every institution and department of the
state ; whereby the ancient oriental systems have
been superseded by those of occidental civilization.
And what is still more noticeable, is the rapidity
with which these changes have taken place, com-
pared with similar revolutions in the British Isles,
and on the continent of Europe, and the likelihood
of their becoming permanent. For example, the
Feudal System which once ruled the rights of
some realms in Europe was not absorbed into
central governments for many generations or
centuries, after their abolition was decreed by the
reigning monarchs. As we have briefly shown in
the preceding chapter, this all-important measure
was enforced by a decree of the Mikado, by the
advice of his new Government, in i S68 ; and
although some malcontents among the Daimios and

72 JAPAN',

Samourai, disputed its practical accomplishment
by force of arms, yet these were suppressed by the
Imperial army and navy, and now all is peace and
security under the new regime.

To accomplish these satisfactory results, the old
military system, with its antiquated arms and
armour, was superseded by the formation of an
Imperial army, drilled, dressed and equipped with
arms of precision. Besides the retainers of the
Daimios, who were bound by feudal tenure to
furnish their quota of men, upon certain occasions,
according to the income of their estates, there was
a class of soldiery raised by the Shiogoons, who
formed what might be called the nucleus of a
national army. Compared with the retainers, they
showed some approach to military discipline ; but
that at the best was of a loose character. Their
uniform was similar to that of the ordinary Japanese
dress, with wide sleeves and petticoats. The men
in the ranks were armed with matchlocks, spears,
and swords of the finest tempered steel, and sharp
as razors ; while the officers wore two swords and
a dagger in their belts, the latter being sometimes
used in committing suicide by hari-kari^ or ripping
up the bowels, in cases of defeat and dishonour.
These were formed Into regiments of infantry,
while others were mounted, and constituted squad-

ARMOUR AND HERALDRY OF THE DAIMIOS. 73

rons of cavalry. Their horses belonged to a fine
breed of animals, hardy, of good bottom, brisk in
action, and richly caparisoned ; so that a regiment
of these troopers presented a showy cavalcade in
peaceful times, whatever they may have done in
warfare. Their generals were superbly mounted on
prancing steeds, and clothed in flowing robes,
which hung over suits of armour, depending from
helmets of quaint designs ; the whole presenting a
gallant appearance, something like that of the
Knights of Malta, or the Spanish Cid Campeodor
and his knights. These suits of armour were of
various materials, according to the rank of the
wearer, from black iron rings fastened to thick
scales of leather, to bright steel corslets of chain
armour inlaid with gold. Not only were the
Shiogoons and their generals enveloped in this rich
panoply of war, but the vassal princes among the
chief Daimios, headed their retainers in this fashion,
— if marching on horseback. It is curious to trace
this similarity of costume to that which prevailed
amongst the nobility during the middle ages of
Europe ; and what adds interest to it, is the fact
that a system of heraldry was instituted by these
Daimios centuries ago, which obtains to this day.

These crests are mostly of a circular form, repre-
senting the corolla of a flower ; that of the Mikado

74 JAPAN.

having radiated lines from a centre, to imitate the
petals of the chrysanthemum. Some are enlarged
by smaller flowers in the centre, and four at the
margin, while a similar device is made by scroll-
work in various colours. Occasionally the scrolls
are like an hour-glass, and in the shape of two
crossed daggers. They have no mottoes or sup-
porters attached, being simple but various in design,
to distinguish the families or clans from each other.
Formerly there were twenty-one great feudal Dai-
mios out of nearly three hundred belonging to the
privileged classes wearing family insignia. These
were the Warwicks, Leicesters, Pembrokes, and
Percys of Japan, who might be designated the
barons of the realm, represented by Satsuma,
Nagato, Toza, Owari, and others whose prowess
in the field rendered them invincible in warfare
against the lesser Daimios.

That power and success was maintained by their
armed retainers or Samo-urai, who constituted the
most formidable and dangerous class in the realm,
especially in time of peace. So much was this the
case, that the Daimios themselves, and the govern-
ment of the Shiogoon, had long been afraid of their
growing power ; and it became one of the most
important reforms after the revolution, how to lessen
their number by disbandment without creating an

FEUDAL RETAINERS DANGEROUS. 75

irresponsible body of men trained to arms^ who
would rob rather than labour honestly. When not
fighting, bands of them went about the rural pro-
vinces plundering the industrious inhabitants, and
when they appeared near the foreign residences at
Yedo, or the treaty ports, they showed undisguised
enmity to the residents. They appeared to be the
" swash-bucklers " of Japan, assuming an air of
braggadocio when they swaggered through the
streets, as history informs us was the case with the
'' Alsatians " in mediaeval London. Generally they
were cowards, and, although trying to insult
foreigners by a bullying demeanour while touching
the sword-hilt, they would fly at the sight of a
revolver. As the first stroke with their deadly
swords was an upward cut from the sheath, all
foreigners were advised to go armed^ and present
their pistols at intending assassins before they had
time to unsheath their weapons. Notwithstanding
all precautions, the number of assassinations among
foreigners in Japan, during the early settlements
was considerable.

The soldiery under the Shiogoon, as commander-
in-chief of the forces, were under better discipline,
although recruited from the retainers of certain
Daimios. In all probability this arose from the
men receiving a fixed pay, with a regular allowance

76 JAPAN.

of provisions. This high functionary — whom
foreigners had misnamed the '' Temporal Emperor,"
— not only commanded the military and naval
forces of the sovereign, but was the supreme head
of the civil administration ; just as if our Horse
Guards, Admiralty, and Downing Street offices were
all under one man. The last of the Shiogoons who
belonged to the powerful family of Tokugawa,
named Yoshi Hisa, was friendly to foreigners, and
liberal in making treaties. In the days of his
greatest power, he was surrounded at times in
Yedo, by an armed force of his own soldiery, and
the retainers of Daimios, numbering not less than
430,000 officers and men.

Although commander-in-chief of this large body
of men at the capital, and a force equally numerous
or greater in the provinces, the Shiogoons and their
colleagues were not exempt from the attacks of
hostile Daimios, whose retainers would carry out
the behests of their masters to the death. An
instance of this murderous kind happened during
the minority of Yoshi Hisa, when the regent was
assassinated by the Samo-urai of a rival Daimio.
This tragic event occurred in broad daylight, within
the precincts of the Shiogoon's castle, while the
Regent was on his way to transact official business,
accompanied by a large body of attendants. The

THE REGENT ASSASSIN A TED. 77

cortege slowly wound its way down the road leading
to the palace, during inclement cold weathei", only
a few stragglers being seen. Suddenly one of them
flung himself across the line of march, stopping the
noriinon or palanquin in which the regent was
seated. Instantly it was surrounded by a compact
body of some twenty armed men, who had thrown
off their rain-cloaks, and appeared in chain armour
brandishing their swords. With frightful yells they
rushed upon the bearers, severing their hands from
the poles, and cutting down those who did not flee.
When the survivors returned to see how it had
fared with their master, they found only his head-
less body in the norimon, while one of the assassins
had escaped with the sanguinary trophy. When
some of them were apprehended and put to the
torture, they confessed that they were the retainers
of Mito, a great Daimio, v\^ho had a deadly enmity
to the regent. To him the head was delivered,
when he spat on the face of his enemy. It was
then secretly conveyed to Kioto and exposed at
the place of execution, with a placard stating, —
'' This is the head of a traitor, who has violated
the laws of Japan, which forbid the admission of
foreigners into the country."

Not only were these bloodthirsty Samourai
ready to carry out the behests of the vindictive

78 JAPAN.

Daimios against their rivals, but shortly after this
event, the retainers of Chosiu, one of the most
warlike, sent a body of them to the city of Kioto
for the purpose of seizing the person of the youth-
ful Mikado. This occurred in the autumn of
1864, when upwards of 5000 of his retainers,
mostly equipped in chain armour, suddenly
appeared before this grand old city, and encamped
on its plain near its western precincts, with a bat-
tery of bronze fieldpieces, many of the Samo-urai
being armed with foreign rifles and revolvers. One
morning before daybreak they marched into the
city towards the Mikado's palace, with the inten-
tion of seizing the person of their hereditary mon-
arch, to carry out the political designs of Chosiu.
The place, however, was strongly guarded by
imperial troops, who also had a park of artillery.
They rushed to their posts and barricaded the
gates, headed by Aisoo, commander of the forces
in Kioto, and made a gallant resistance. There
were also a number of the Shiogoon's soldiers
from Yedo, who guarded one wing of the palace,
and were the first to be attacked by Chosiu's men.
As daylight revealed their position and strength a
desperate encounter ensued, ordnance and musketry
were fired on both sides, and many were killed
and wounded. Aisoo's force then came into

CHOSIU ATTACKS KIOTO. 79

action, and succeeded in beating off the assailants
with great slaughter.

While the fight was raging with fury, another
body of Chosiu's men, who were non-combatants
set fire to the residences of two great officers in the
Mikado's household, causing the inhabitants in
the adjacent streets to fly from their burning
dwellings into the open country. In another
quarter of the city were three large yasJiikis, or
barrack residences of Chosiu, which were set on
fire by his opponents, so that in a short time a
widespread conflagration raged, its lurid flames
lighting up the ranks of the combatants with a
picturesque but deadly glare. Next day it was
further extended by the burning of three great
temples, from the effects of shot and shell, in order
to render them untenable by the imperial troops
stationed there to guard the approach to Nijio
castle, where the young Mikado was residing.
As it was unsafe for his Majesty to be there, he
was obliged to fly with a strong bodyguard to the
Temple of Hiyesan, about fifteen miles from Kioto.
For three days the conflagration raged, and nearly
one-half of the city was reduced to ashes ; but the
assailants were repulsed and defeated, leaving be-
hind a third of their number killed and wounded.

Thisdaringattemptby Chosiu, the powerful Daimio

8o JAPAN.

of Nagato, to seize the person of the Mikado,
influenced the Shiogoon's government and the
Daimios friendly to the imperial rule to punish the
rebellious noble. Though they could not reach him
in his stronghold at Hangi Castle, it was resolved
to destroy his barracks at Yedo, which were capable
of quartering lopoo armed retainers. The fire-
bells were rung, and a large body of firemen were
assembled, and led on by the yakonins or officers
of the troops, who directed the plan of demolition.
First the buildings were gutted, and the warlike
furnishings thrown into the moat. Then the
Daimio's residence was razed to the ground, and
the long range of barracks turned into heaps of
ruins. Some idea of their extent may be formed
from the fact that it took several thousand men
three days to complete the work of demolition.

Ultimately this recalcitrant Daimio had to suc-
cumb, when the Shiogoon's forces on land were
assisted by the British naval squadron at sea, by the
bombardment of Simonosaki, and the destruction
of his foreign ships. Thus was the great feudal
baron of Nagato thoroughly punished and subdued
by his own government, as well as by the represen-
tatives of the Treaty Powers. Moreover, the cir-
cumstances attending his downfall pointed out to
the Japanese statesmen of progress, that the main-

NUCLEUS OF THE NATIONAL ARMY. 8i

teiiance of those feudal armies was incompatible with
the sovereign rights of the imperial dynasty, vested
in the person of the Mikado, and a hindrance to
the good government of his realm. Hence it was
necessary not only to disband the Samourai as
retainers of the Daimios, but also to subjugate
and depose the Shiogoon, and form his soldiery
into the nucleus of an imperial army. After much
contention on sea and land this was accomplished.
At the time this was being effected, it was
estimated that the Shiogoon, as generalissimo of
the forces, commanded 100,000 infantry, and
20,000 cavalry, four-fifths of them armed with their
ancient weapons, including bov/s and arrows.
When, however, this nominal force was inspected
for the purpose of reoganization, there were not
more than 80,000 men, considered efficient for
infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, to be
armed, equipped, and drilled after the European
system. As to the contingents the Daimios were
bound to furnish, they numbered on paper about
370,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry, but they
were at no time entirely available to combine as a
federal army ; so the best of them were recruited
into the national service, which has been gradually
increasing until the disciplined army musters about
1 50,000 men, besides militia.

G

82 JAPAN.

Now that these military elements of the past
have been sifted, selected, and rearranged for their
consolidation into a national army, after European
models in costume and equipment, though the
men have gained in efficiency yet they have lost
in picturesqueness. As a rule, the Japanese
soldiers are short men according to the British
standard of heights for the army ; so that when
they appear on parade in their tight dresses and
shakoes, they look like companies of boys, com-
pared to their former appearance in flowing sleeves
and continuations. Moreover, when on the march,
their shuffling gait, acquired in undisciplined days,
has only in a few instances been overcome, con-
sequently they cut a comical figure compared to
foreign troops. But when the day of battle comes,
these eccentricities are not observable, as they go
into action with an elan that few European
troops can excel. Their instructors came from
France at first, but the ambassador who visited
Europe deemed the military system of that
nation less suitable for drilling and embodying the
Japanese army than the Prussian system. Hence
the uniforms are cut after the patterns of the
regiments in both countries, sometimes of one
corps sometimes of another, and occasionally the
patterns are blended, making rather an incongru-

RISING OF SAMO-URAL 83

ous appearance in foreign estimation. Their arms
are of the newest construction, and in their hands
dwarf the appearance of the infantry still more.
The mounted troops and artillery make a better
appearance ; and the Mikado has a decidedly mili-
tary looking corps of Horse Guards quartered at
Tokio, who escort his carriage on all great occa-
sions. He himself is most frequently clad in the
costume of a foreign general, thickly embroidered
with gold lace, tags, and epaulettes, an attire
which suits his swarthy face, and the military
appearance of his moustache and imperial, and his
hair, closely cropped in European style.

These disciplined soldiers were not long con-
solidated into regiments, forming the nucleus of
the national army, before an opportunity occurred
which brought them into contact with the re-
mainder of the old feudal forces, who refused to
enter the new military ranks. For several years
the government agents in the western and southern
provinces reported a strong element of discontent
prevailing among the unemployed ex-samourai,
who had spent the means obtained on transferring
their lands to the state, without saving sufficient
for their future maintenance. The first to declare
his disaffection was a noted Yako?nn, or officer,
named Mayebara, who formerly fought in the civil

G 2

84 JAPAN,

Avar which overthrew the Shiogoon power. He
issued a proclamation, in which he declared it
to be his intention to free the Mikado from his
new evil councillors ; saying that he would for
such a purpose use force, and he called upon all
intelligent Samourai to lend him a hand. To his
appeal there was an immediate response, chiefly
from Chosiu malcontents in the island of Kiusiu.
At first they assembled in small parties, which
the government were able to disperse by sending a
body of armed police to the disaffected districts.
So no drilled policemen left Tokio, were landed
at Hakita, and finding the insurgents in arms,
attacked them and drove them to the hills, making
sixty-five prisoners, who were brought on to
Nagasaki.

This was, however, only a small contingent of
the rebels, the main body, under the command of
Mayebara, were in the interior of the island, formed
into three detachments, one remaining at Hagi,
one marching for Hamada, and one for Tsumano
chiefly composed of men from the Kumamoto, and
Akidzuki clans. The insurrection soon assumed
such formidable proportions that the government
had no other alternative but to crush it with their
new military force. This happened in November,
1 876, when a battalion of infantry from the camp

HARIKARI. 85

at Osaka was despatched with all speed to the
field of insurrection. They arrived in time to pre-
vent a junction of the three detachments, of about
1000 men each, and attacked them severally in
gallant style, defeating two of them, and killing
wards of 200 men. The third contingent, under
the leader Mayebara, ran out of ammunition ; and
through him negotiations were carried on to sup-
press the revolt, which ended in failure. Then he
and seven adherents attempted to escape from the
island of Kiusiu, but the junk they had boarded
met with bad weather and had to put in at a har-
bour v/ere they were arrested by the authorities.
When these men and their famihes saw no chance
of success, three of their wives committed suicide,
while a fourth killed his Vvdfe, who had received a
bullet wound, and his son, the mother committing
suicide, in accordance with old Japanese custom.

The method by vv'hich suicide is, or rather was
committed, because the sanguinary practice has
almost died out, is neither by hanging or cutting
the throat, but with a sharp dagger, cutting a cross
on the abdomen and disembowelling the victim,
and named harikari. Not only did these women
destroy themselves, but great numbers of the men
also, the attendant circumstances being of a peculiar
kind illustrative of exploded institutions. Four

86 JAPAN.

young Samourai entered a temple in Kumamoto
where they committed harikari at the Sintoo
shrine, each of them placing on the altar a copy
of romantic verses written by himself. On the top
of a mountain in the vicinity of the battlefield, six
others were found who had died by their own
hands. An old Samourai named Tamaki, seventy-
seven years of age, who belonged to the jai^ or
anti-foreign party, when he heard of Mayebara's
arrest, went to the tomb of his ancestors and there
committed suicide. Four more of the Kumamoto
rebels went as fugitives to a private house, there to
put themselves out of reach of the enemy, and
commit harikari. Before, however, accomplishing
their design, they spent a whole day drinking,
dancing, and singing ; so much so, that the mistress
of the house urged them to accomplish their task,
lest the police should have time to come and arrest
them. But they did not allow themselves to be
disturbed by any such apprehensions, they merely
said they would fight any intruder, and continued
their revelry until the evening came, when they
donned festal robes and killed themselves accord-
ing to ancient custom. It was estimated at the
time, when the insurgents received the first check
from the imperial troops, that the number of those,
who in consequence of defeat committed suicide,

REBELLION LN IvIUSIU. 87

was almost equal to the number slain in the en-
gagement.

For three months up to the close of 1876, com-
parative quiet remained in the turbulent provinces
of Kiusiu, and the promoters of peace and order
were sanguine that the spirit of disaffection to the
new order of things was nipped in the bud. Not so.
From what transpired at the beginning of the fol-
lowing year, there was evidence that a rebellion
was being secretly matured by the Samourai of the
warlike Satsuma clan, not merely among the lesser
ex-retainers, but headed by the leading ex-Daimios.
The first intimation of the movement that reached
government, was the report of an attack upon the
gunpowder manufactory at Kagosima, which was
forcibly entered by a band of armed men, who put
the persons in charge to flight, and proceeded to
carry away the powder. As before, a body of police
was sent to capture the delinquents, but these were
so numerous that they were deterred from seizing
any of them, while it was ascertained that the
malcontents were possessed of many rifles, but
were short of powder, and that for this reason they
seized the contents of the magazine. It was
further ascertained that there were nearly ten
thousand Satsuma men encamped near Kumamoto,
the scene of the first outbreak, one-fifth armed

88 JAPAN.

with rifles and the remainder with swords ; who
declared hostihty against the government, but not
the sovereign, in defence of their feudatory claims.

The cause of this fresh outbreak among the
restless malcontents of Satsuma, was based upon
the discontent of the landholders and others belong-
ing to the exploded system of feudal tenures, who
received pensions from the national treasury on
yielding up their lands and privileges to the Central
Government. So far this arrangement was fairly
successful, but it drained the Exchequer of means
that checked the financial progress of the State; and
the pensions were therefore capitalized, the principal
to be paid off in June, 1877. As the time drew
near for the settlement, it was calculated that the
amount of funds which would come into the
hands of the privileged classes, at an approximate
estimate, would be equivalent to six and a half
million sterling, distributed throughout the whole
realm. Instead of paying the recipients in full at
the time specified, as originally intended, a new
arrangement, so as to spread the disbursements
over several years, and into national investments,
was proposed by the chief statesman of progress,
Iwakura, well known in England as Japanese
Ambassador Extraordinary.

His proposals were to invest one half of this

ASSEMBLY OF NOBLES. 89

amount in the establishment of a bank, to be con-
ducted on the most approved foreign system ; two
and a half millions to be made a government loan
at liberal interest, and the remainder to be em-
ployed in the establishment of useful manufactures
by machinery. This patriotic proposition met
with the approbation of his colleagues in the Ad-
ministration, but in the Assembly of Nobles it was
received with murmurs of disapprobation, not only
by the inferior ex-Daimios but by some of the most
influential men in the State, whose kinsmen held
important posts in the army and navy, as vrell as
the civil service. The leader of these malcontents
was the redoubtable Shimadzoo Saburo, the recog-
nized chief of the still pow^erful clan of Satsuma,
occupying the territory which includes the town
and district of Kagosima, where the insurgents
were encamped.

The government seeing the threatening aspect
of affairs, and the likehhood of the movement be-
coming formidable, again had recourse to the
disciplined army in order to check the incipient in-
surrection. Accordingly orders were issued through
the military and naval departments to use all des-
patch in forwarding ships with troops to the scene
of insurrection. It was observable at the time that
these orders were executed more tardily than was

90 JAPAN.

consistent with the urgency of despatch, necessary
on such an important occasion. Moreover when
the troops came into collision with the insurgents,
though they fought a successful engagement at
first, yet as many of the officers and men were
clansmen of their antagonists,, they relaxed their
efforts to suppress the rising. These facts and
other circumstances convinced the government
that there existed elements of disloyalty in the
ranks of the newly-organized army that it was
necessary to eradicate, if they could not come to
terms with the leaders of the insurrection. Doubts
upon these questions led to a temporizing policy,
which, instead of calming down the passions of the
turbulent ex-samourai, emboldened them to in-
crease their warlike efforts, in the hopes that they
might regain their former incomes and privileges.

When these events occurred in February, 1877,
the disciplined army had for its commander-in-
chief, General Saigo Takamori, the most skilful
soldier in Japan, and having the devotion of the
best regiments. This was especially the case where
the Satsuma element preponderated, he being of
the same kinship ; so it was soon found out that
he sympathized with the insurgents, while he was
inimical to the government, though perfectly loyal
to the Mikado. Besides his dissent from the Ad-

DEFECTION IN SAIGO. 91

ministration on public affairs, he had a private
grievance against Okuba, one of its leading mem-
bers, who, he alleged, had begun to raise a conspi-
racy against him, with a view to seizing his person
at Kagosima, where he was then quartered, for the
purpose of bringing him to trial on a charge of
disloyalty to the government. This attempt failed,
and the enraged Saigo, together with Generals
Kirino and Shinawara, both Satsuma men, re-
solved on demanding satisfaction from Okuba, and
his punishment at the hands of the Mikado. For
this purpose they assembled a force of fifteen thou-
sand adherents, with the intention of marching on
Tokio, where they expected to find the emperor.
It so happened, however, that his majesty was on
an imperial progress to Kioto the ancient capital,
and en route to open the newly-constructed railway
between Hiogo and Osaka. When he learnt by
telegraph the particulars of the hostile movement
in Kagosima, and its extension to other districts,
together with the evident defection of General
Saigo, he dismissed him from the rank of com-
mander in-chief, and appointed Prince Arisugawa
to that post, as a temporary measure.

No time was lost in arresting the progress of the
three generals, each advancing with a division of five
thousand men and some artillery. Two of these

92 . JAPAN.

contingents came into collision with the imperial
forces at Kumamoto, a city not far from Kagosima.
A desperate fight took place ; many were killed
and wounded on both sides, without any decisive
victory, while a great part of the city was set on
fire by a bom.bardment of shells. One column ad-
vancing towards the city from Tsuboi, were met by
the government troops and dispersed with grape-
shot. Another column advanced by the high road
and gave battle, when a man-of-war arriving in the
neighbourhood landed reinforcements, and gained
possession of the hills. The Satsuma men, finding
themselves attacked on both sides, broke and fled.
Another engagement took place, in which the in-
surgents lost heavily and retreated in disorder. In
the first battle more than twelve thousand men
were engaged on the rebel side, and the fighting
lasted five hours. Notwithstanding this defeat
hostiUties were renewed next day, when the rebels
were again worsted and retreated to Wooyeki,
before the disciplined troops. It was said that the
enemy fought bravely but hopelessly, and in re-
treating left many prisoners in the hands of the
imperial forces. These repeated defeats depressed
the spirits of the rebels, and inspired the national
army with great confidence. Prince Arisugawa-
no-miya, the new commander-in-chief, established

INSURRECTION A T SA TSUMA. 93

his head-quarters at Fukuoka, a town on the west
coast, commanding the approach to Simonosaki
Strait on the Kiusiu side. Thousands of govern-
ment troops were continually arriving in the dis-
turbed districts, and a confident feeling was enter-
tained at the close of February that they would
stamp out the rebellion.

Those sanguine anticipations were not realized.
Desultory warfare was carried on for five months
afterwards, when the Satsuma men were reinforced
by disaffected partisans from other districts, until
the hostile movement assumed the proportions of
a civil war. Not only were the land rebels being
strengthened by fresh contingents, some with artil-
lery, but several armed steamers were brought to
add a sea force, for coast operation. This became
a source of uneasiness to peaceable merchants, and
seaport towns where foreigners were resident. The
inquietude was most felt at Hiogo, where twenty
pieces of cannon were sent from Yokohama to
defend the place. In most of the western and
southern provinces, the ex-samourai movement
seemed like an avalanche, gaining greater power
and bulk as it advanced towards the capital. If
it had proved successful in overwhelming the
newly acquired force, there can be no doubt that
the progress of Japan in the path of peaceful civi-

94 JAPAN,

Hzatlon would have been arrested, and much of
the old feudal leaven restored into the body politic.
This the energetic reformers of the Administration
apprehended, and they were resolved to spare
neither men nor means in crushing the rebellion.

It is not necessary to enter into any details of
this internecine strife, which paralyzed the financial
resources of the government when they were already
in great straits to meet their home and foreign
engagements. Suffice it to say that instead of con-
solidating the whole land-force into one powerful
army, the commander-in-chief, from want of
generalship and a lack of knowledge of European
military tactics^ divided his men into detachments,
and attacked bodies of insurgents more numerous
than themselves. The consequences were that the
enemy sometimes gained a victory, or engage-
ments resulted in a drawn battle, which encouraged
the desperate Samourai to persevere in sacrificing
their lives rather than submit. Moreover, from time
to time the government made overtures, through
their agents, to come to a compromise, that would
stop further bloodshed. These offers, instead of
being entertained, were taken by the deluded rebels
as signs of weakness, and their demands were
such that they could not be complied with.

Saigo no longer appeared under the mask of

PJi OGRESS OF THE INSURRECTION.

95

loyalty, but raised his standard of revolt, bearing
this inscription : "Saigo Takamori, Commander-in-
chief, President of the New Government." From
this, it would appear that he was preparing for a
coiip-d'ctat, to overthrow the peaceful regime, and
establish a military despotism, such as existed in the
days of the Shiogoons, or generalissimos. To what
extent the ex-samourai of other districts in the island
of Kiusiu joined his flag was not known, but the wily
soldier endeavoured to create disaffection among the
loyal disciplined troops. This he did not succeed
in accomplishing, as the officers took great care
in preventing emissaries entering the camps and
distributing revolutionary placards. At the same
time the presence of this redoubtable general in
the battle-field, commanding picked men with re-
inforcements, had the effect of checking the attacks
of the army. In most instances victory was'claimed
by both sides, while they ravaged the country more
in the fashion of guerilla warfare than in pitched
battles. Nevertheless^ these engagements were of
a sanguinary character, the numbers of killed and
wounded on both sides reaching to many thou-
sands.

At length, after a struggle of seven months from
the commencement of the outbreak, the insurgents
were so diminished in numbers, and destitute of pro-

96 JAPAN.

visions and ammunition, that Saigo and other leaders
saw no chance of success. Accordingly, they in-
duced about 5000 of their adherents to surrender
themselves to the Imperial forces ; telling them
that the cause for which they had been fighting was
no longer practicable, and it was useless to compel
them to persist any longer against the government
troops. Having effected this, without the com-
mander himself or his colleagues delivering up their
arms, Generals Saigo Takamori and Kirino, with
about 500 followers, v/ho would not forsake their
brave but misguided captain, ascended the peak of
Yenodadi, where they defeated a reconnoitring party
of Imperialists, and reaching another mountain
named Shiroyama, in the province of Higo, they
erected fortified works. No time was lost in besieg-
ing the enemy in this his last stronghold, a measure
thus recorded by the NicJii Nichi SJiiinbnn, the
government newspaper : — ''On the 24th September,
[1877,] the icth year of Meiji, at 4 a.m., the Imperial
forces commenced their attack ; at half past four,
they stormed the Shiroyama mountain, and ap-
proached the rebel positions, which v/ere completely
overthrown by fiv^e o'clock. Saigo Takamori,
Kirino Toshiaki, and Murata Shimpachi, fell on
the battle-field, and the rebellion is now completely
crushed." Saigo was killed by a rifle-shot, while

COST OF THE REBELLION. 97

bravely leading on his men, and Kirino, the second
in command, was killed by a cannon-ball. In order
to prove to the authorities at Tokio that these two
leaders of the rebellion were dead, their heads were
cut off and sent thither ; while their bodies were
interred at Kagosima, with the honours paid to
brave men.

Some idea of the magnitude of this formidable
insurrection may be formed from the monetary
" sinews of war " expended by the government, an
outlay which was chiefly covered by issues of
Kinsatz or Exchequer bills. Up to the end of
July the Government Gazette stated that the total
amount expended on the rebellion by the Okiirasko
department over and above the ordinar>^ army ex-
penditure was 26,600,0007^;/, equivalent to 5,3 50,000/.
sterling. In addition, the cost of thetwo last months
increased the total to about 8,000,000/. ; and if the
expenditure of the rebels be taken at one half, not
less than 12,000,000/. sterling was spent on that
fruitless insurrection.

Within the imperial precincts of the capital, next
to 0-shiro, where the Mikado resides, are the
barracks, or head-quarters of the army, what we
might designate the Japanese Horse Guards. Here
are quartered regiments of infantry, cavalry, and
artillery, all under drill by instructors from Prus-

H

98 JAPAN.

sian military schools, until their native assistants
become so efficient that they will be paid off and
superseded. An uncle of the Mikado, named Prince
Kita Shirakova, a captain in the Prussian Dragoons,
having studied military tactics and strategy at
Berlin, has been appointed by his nephew Com-
mander-in-chief of the Japanese army. When it
was determined by the government, on the report
of the ambassadors who had visited Europe and
America, to adopt the Prussian military system as
the most suitable for their new army, the infantry
were armed with the famous German needle-gun,
but since then, others of the Snider and Martini-
Henry construction have been introduced. At first,
of course, they were awkward in handling these
weapons at platoon and manual exercises ; but when
manoeuvred according to the Prussian regulations
the grip and use of the rifle was complete, without
a jerk in a whole battalion. When the columns de-
ployed, they fell back again with the greatest pre-
cision. Previously the men wore stockings and straw
sandals, but now they are shod in strong leather
boots. It is this change that has caused their
shuffling gait, which will be soon got over by drill
and practice. The peculiar coijfure has had to give
way, and the hair is cut short in European military
style ; their whole habits, indeed, while on service,

MILITAR V SCHO OLS. 99

they have been compelled to change^ acting in
obedience to discipline.

Besides the barracks there are military schools,
in which the ensigns are educated for appointments
as officers in the army. There young gentlemen,
and sons of nobles, are instructed by Prussian
officers, appointed for the purpose at the request
of the government. In rank they are organized
as captains, lieutenants, and sub-officers, precisely
on the same system as in Prussia. At their head
is a major or colonel, who generally understands
something of the German language, as the words of
command are given in it. Lectures are delivered
by him and his lieutenants, on military tactics, for-
tifications, and evolutions of artillery, which are
generally attended by all the officers in garrison,
having sometimes 500 most attentive hearers.
Military duty was at first introduced for a period
of service restricted to three years, but this has
been extended to five years, for the infantry. Other
terms are arranged for the cavalry, as they are only
called out on special service, and some companies
have to furnish their own horses, though their
maintenance is paid by the military authorities.
What that is and the pay of men and officers we
have no data from which to furnish an accurate
statement, but it is low, and regulated on the Prus-

H 2

loo japan:

sian scale. The corps of artillery is not strong, and
their guns are after the Prussian model of 7-poun-
ders, with several batteries of artillery suitable for
mountain warfare, which can be taken to pieces and
carried on horses, as high as the peak of Fusi-yama,
the great volcanic mountain. To complete this
army on the European system there is a corps of
pioneers, detachments heading every regiment, in
complete panoply of war.

CHAPTER V.

THE NAVY.

Japan being eminently a maritime country, like
our own, her institutions are "steeped in brine ; "
and from time immemorial a hardy and numerous
class of seamen have been reared. But from her
isolation for so many centuries, and the prohibition
which once existed by which no Japanese was
allowed to leave the islands under the penalty of
death in the event of returning^ the exercise of their
vocation was confined to their own waters. More-
over, as the rulers saw no necessity for building large
vessels above a few hundred tons measurement, the
sailors had to ply their occupation in small craft,
— but of beautiful build and rig — which they do
expertly both in sailing and rowing. When the
British and other foreign ships- of- war entered their
most exclusive harbours, and compelled refractory
Daimios to respect treaty obligations and come
to terms, they saw the advantage of acquiring
a similar class of vessels to engage the enemy on

102 JAPAN.

his own element. Accordingly Satsuma, Chosiu,
Nagato, and other wealthy nobles proclaimed
a truce^ so that hostilities were suspended. Seeing
numbers of merchant steamers, chiefly British,
frequenting the principal harbours for the purposes
of trade, it occurred to the more astute that these,
if purchased, could be manned and armed as
war-ships. Through the agents at the ports
their purchase was agreed to by the merchants
and owners resident in China, who made good
sales of them to the wealthy Daimios, shrewdly-
guessing that they were not fit to stand the
broadside of a man-of-war. As many as twenty
merchant-steamers were sold during two years,
when some had heavy armaments placed in
them, and disputed the passage of their seas to
foreign ships, especially the Strait of Simonosaki.

Besides the merchant-steamers purchased by the
wealthy Daimios, the Shiogoon had several bond
fide war steam-vessels, constructed in foreign dock-
yards. The largest of these was the " Stonewall
Jackson," a frigate from the American Navy,
which the United States Government exchanged
for one built by a private firm which the Japanese
rejected. There were two ironclads built in Scot-
land, of a superior construction, suitable to the
native officers and crews who manned them.

FORMA TION OF THE NA VY, 103

Three smaller vessels of the gunboat class, which
had been sold from the British squadron in Japan
waters, completed a list of six war-ships in addition
to the twenty merchant-steamers armed and
manned after the style of European men-of-war.
The latter were nearly all in the possession of
wealthy Daimios, who also possessed one or two
of the former.

When the consolidation of the land-forces into
a national army was progressing, a similar project
was mooted, regarding the organization of a
national navy, to comprise all the foreign-built
ships in the Shiogoon's service and the hands of
Daimios. This project emanated from Higo, a
Daimio of the first rank, whose territory in the
island of Kiusiu yielded a revenue equivalent to
400,000/. per annum. On transferring his exten-
sive landed possessions to the Mikado, he, along
with Satsuma, Tosa, Nagato, Kanga, and others
who had invested largely in foreign ships, retained
all their property afloat, as well as their family
residences and movables on shore. On the sub-
ject of foreign ships and trade still in the hands
of the ex-Daimios, he addressed a memorial to the
Mikado, setting forth his views, to the following
purport : —

He expressed it as his opinion that the navy

I04 JAPAN.

should be entirely in the hands of the government,
and that all ships of foreign build, armed as
men-of-war, held by ex-feudatories, should be
delivered over to the central authority, at a fixed
value, for which interest should be paid annually,
as in the case of the land transfers. Moreover, he
suggested that the owners of steamers and saihng-
ships employed in commerce, should be called
upon to dispose of them to merchants or trading
companies, in order that all mercantile pursuits
should be given up by the Japanese nobility, and
left entirely in the hands of the native merchants,
of their several districts. At the time these pro-
posals and suggestions were made, the govern-
ment did not see their way to purchase so many
ships with an impoverished exchequer, especially
when their new policy was on the path of peace.
Nevertheless the views contained in Higo's
memorial were ultimately carried out, with the
necessary amendments, showing that he was an
astute and practical statesman. At the same
time the government did not neglect the efficient
maintenance of the squadron handed over by their
predecessors under the Shiogoon.

Meanwhile the Daimios most hostile to foreigners
were not only adding heavier armaments to the
converted foreign steamers, besides the Dutch

COMB IN A TION A GAINST FOREIGNERS. 105

corvette " Soembing," mounting eight heavy guns,
but they were secretly arming their forces and
manning their batteries on the coast with foreign
ordnance and munitions of war, besides manu-
facturing them extensively at their own factories.
It became evident to the British and European
admirals, commanding naval forces in Japanese
waters, that not only were great preparations
being made to resist foreign invasion, but the
wealthiest and most warlike feudal barons were
burning to come into collision with the naval
enemy, and try conclusions on his own system of
warfare. As yet they had no experience of a naval
action or bombardment of fortified towns ; and
when they saw the increased strength of their own
armaments, they felt confident the foreign forces
could be repulsed with great slaughter.

Foremost among these powerful Daimios of
the old exclusive class was Chosiu of Nasfato,
who had assassinated the regent of the Shiogoon
through his emissaries. His magnificent maritime
domain forming the extreme southern province
of Nippon, included all the country on the northern
shore of Simonosaki Strait, including the fortified
town from which its name is derived. As described
in the first chapter, that picturesque passage
to the Inland Sea is barely half-a-mile wide,

io6 JAPAN.

and it was commanded by six batteries, at
intervals along the shore for four miles. Being the
shortest channel from west to east along the main-
land coast, it was frequented by foreign war
vessels, and merchant-steamers constantly passing
to and fro, without asking permission of the land-
owners on either side, as they considered the
channel an ocean highway open to all ships. This
Chosiu disputed, and secretly made preparations
to attack some of the foreign ships disobeying his
commands.

Affairs were in this warlike and portentous
condition while an American merchant-steamer,
named the " Pembroke," was on her passage from
Yokohama to Shanghai. When in the Suwonada
Sea she passed a large sailing-ship of foreign build,
heavily armed and manned, and the captain, never
dreaming of any hostile intent, brought his vessel
to an anchor at the east entrance to Simonosaki
Strait. At the same time the sailing-vessel
brought up about a quarter of a mile off, and hoisted
the Japanese war-ensign. When she was approach-
ing the steamer, a gun was fired from the first
battery, and the signal repeated along the coast by
the five other forts. This was in the afternoon of
a summer day, and both vessels remained near
each other until next morning, when the treache-

FOREIGN VESSELS A TTA CKED. 107

rous Japanese fired a dozen broadside shots Into
the defenceless American, which cut away part of
the rig-ging. Then an armed brig suddenly
appeared to windward, and both vessels fired
as rapidly as they could load and discharge, but
without doing much damage, the night being dark.
By this time the " Pembroke " got up steam, and
escaped out of range from her assailants to the
wide waters of the Inland Sea.

This was the commencement of hostilities
against foreign ships, and as the '* Pembroke " was
an unarmed American merchantman, it showed
that no class of vessel or national flag was exempt
from attack. Ten days after the foregoing
occurrence, the ^' Kien-Chang," a French despatch-
boat, belonging to a squadron under Admiral
Jaurez, was fired upon, and a boat sent to make
inquiries was sunk by a round shot — the vessel
only escaping the same fate by steering through a
hitherto untried channel. As the " Kien-Chang"
was entering Nagasaki harbour, the commander
boarded the ''Medusa" — a Dutch man-of-war
bound for the straits. He Inform.ed the captain
of what had happened, to put him on his guard,
so he hoisted the Netherlands' ensign, thinking
that it would be respected as the oldest friendly
foreign flag. In this he was mistaken : for the

io8 JAPAN.

" Medusa," on entering the channel, was saluted with
shotted guns from the north battery and the brig.
Immediately the decks were cleared for action,
and a smart engagement ensued, which lasted for
an hour and a half, when the " Medusa " got
through, but not without damage and five men
killed or wounded.

Immediately these hostile attacks were reported
to the American and French admirals with their
squadrons in Yedo Bay. They at once took steps
to punish Chosiu in his stronghold. Accordingly
the United States' corvette "Wyoming" boldly
steered up to the Simonosaki anchorage, and
engaged the barque and brig — formerly the
*' Lancefield " and " Lanrick " — purchased from
British owners in China. These were soon dis-
abled ; but her guns were unable to cope with
the heavy ordnance in the batteries, so she had to
retire after an action of an hour and ten minutes,
with the loss of four men killed and seven wounded.
Then Admiral Jaurez brought up his flag-ship
the " Semiramis " and the "Tancrede" corvette,
to avenge the attack upon his despatch-boat. Not
only did his powerful broadsides silence the
batteries, but he landed a force of marines and
sailors, who defeated a body of smnonrai two
thousand strong and led by Daimios in complete

BOMBARDMENT OF SIMONOSAKl. 109

armour. A temple used as a powder-magazine
was blown up, and the force got on board with
few casualties.

The effect of these retaliatory engagements
b?ing considered insufficient to punish and repress
the hostile intentions of Chosiu, the foreign naval
officers combined to send an allied fleet to bom-
bard Simonosaki, and set the straits free to all
comers. Accordingly troops for the expedition
were embarked on five French vessels, four Dutch,
one American, and eight British. These eighteen
men-of-war were arranged in battle array, in Si-
monosaki harbour. While the large ships lay at
anchor, those of lighter draught kept under steam
and engaged the batteries. For three hours and a
half the bombardment was kept up with a con-
tinuous discharge of shot and shell, which was so
smartly responded to by the Japanese gunners, that
it elicited the praise of all on board the fleet. Next
day the batteries were silenced, and a large force
of soldiers, marines, and sailors, landed, disman-
tled the batteries, and captured sixty-two pieces of
ordnance as trophies. While the demolition of the
batteries, and the embarkation of the guns was in
progress, an envoy of Chosiu came on board
Admiral Kuper's flag-ship, under a flag of truce,
charged with instructions to terminate hostilities.

I lo JAPAN.

This was done, and subsequently Simonosaki Strait
was free to all nations.

Besides acting with the allied fleet in this en-
gagement with a hostile Daimio, Admiral Kuper
assembled his squadron to punish another of them
solely on British interests. This was Shimadzoo
Sabura of Satsuma, whose retainers had assassi-
nated an English gentleman named Richardson, a
Shanghai merchant, on a visit to Japan, who was
cut down with swords while looking on at the
Daimio's procession. Sabura having refused to
comply with the terms of the British Minister to
deliver up the assassins to punishment, there was
no other alternative but to demand them by force,
and punish him and his adherents in the strong-
hold of Kagosima. That fortified town is situated
on the landlocked shores of a bay, from which it
derives its name, opening from the extreme
southern cape of Kiusiu island. It is a large town
from whence considerable trade was carried on by
the peaceable inhabitants, who, however, lived in a
quarter separated from the citadel, with a popula-
tion of 1 80,000.

The British squadron, consisting of seven vessels,
carrying eighty- nine guns, anchored off the
city, while negotiations were begun, hoping that
hostilities might be averted by diplomacy. No

BOMBARDMENT OF KA GOSIMA. 1 1 1

satisfactory reply was received, so a reconnoitring
party was despatched, and seized three foreign
steamers laden with grain and copper ore. The
Japanese seeing this, opened fire on the fleet, and
then the bombardment commenced. The weather,
which had been lowering all the morning, now
burst forth in one of the terrible typhoons which
sweep across these seas. Nevertheless, the " Eury-
alus," flag-ship, led the van, showering shot
and shell over the devoted city, until the storm
reached its height, threatening to drive her ashore,
when she retired to safer ground, with the loss of
Captain Jo sling, Commander Wilmot, and seven
men, besides double that number wounded. The
" Perseus " blew up the gun-foundry and magazine
with rockets, and the city caught fire from the
strong wind carrying ignited materials. During
the whole of that night it blew a hurricane, but
the squadron rode it out without any material
damage.

This was the severest blow inflicted by any
foreign power on the recalcitrant Daimios ; and it
especially struck terror into the hitherto invincible
Satsuma clan, as a punishment on Shimadzoo
Sabura, whose adherents wantonly assassinated a
British subject. It had the desired effect of
bringing them to terms with the Charge-d' Affaires

112 JAPAN.

at Yokohama, where envoys were sent from Kago-
sima. The demands were that the assassins should
be delivered up, and an indemnity equivalent to
25,000/. paid, partly to the relatives of Mr. Richard-
son, and partly for other sufferers. The money
was duly handed over to the legation. The mur-
derers, however, ^vere stated to have escaped no
one knew whither ; but the envoy said every dili-
gence would be used in searching for them, and
that they should be, as soon as arrested, punished
with death in the presence of British officers.
This was accepted as the basis of good-will and
amity, and thus ended the punishment and redress
for the cruel murder of an Englishman.

Although these warlike measures were taken in-
dependently by the British naval representatives
in Japan, yet they were acts on behalf of all the
foreigners in the country, exposed to similar
dangers. Assassinations, however, did not imme-
diately cease, for others occurred at the British and
American legations ; and cases of Frenchmen and
Dutchmen being massacred^ occurred for several
years afterwards, which were all satisfactorily ar-
ranged on the principle laid down in the Satsuma
affairs.

In time these disappeared, and now it is safe for
a foreigner to take up his abode at any of the

BRITISH INSTRUCTORS FOR THE NAVY, 113

treaty ports. Hence the bombardments of Si-
mono saki and Kagosima have been beneficial to
civilization.

Instead of bearing animosity towards the British
who had bombarded Kagosima and other strong-
holds successfully, the Japanese admired the power
and pluck of our forces, and as the greatest naval
nation in the world, not only resolved to adopt
our naval system, but requested to have instruc-
tors from our fleets and dockyards. The result of
that application was favourable, and the Admiralty
selected efficient officers, and petty officers, to in-
augurate a naval school at Tokio — a large building
with subsidiary erections on the shore of Yedo Bay.
Here are twenty-three English menfrom our navy :
— One lieutenant, as Director of Nautical Studies,
one Director of Engineering, one engineer, three
gunners, one boatswain, two chief gunner's mates,
one chief boatswain's mate, one gunner's mate, one
quartermaster, one leading stoker, one ship's cor-
poral, six leading seamen, and one able seaman. On
an average some 500 students are practically taught
seamanship and engineering in all their branches,
upon the English system ; and all the books, with
sea-names, are given in our language, which is the
prevailing foreign tongue in the government insti-
tutions and records. Mr. Watson, Her Majesty's

I

114 JAPAN,

Secretary of Legation at Toklo, reports that,
" The course of instruction followed at the Naval
College, as well as the discipline which is enforced,
are similar to those observed at the like institu-
tions in England. The cadets wear the same
naval uniform, and the seamen also, as ours at
Woolwich. Everything promises favourably as
respects this establishment, from which Japan may
derive more real advantage from a material point
of view, than from any increase of her importance
as a naval Power."

On the southern shore of Yedo Gulf, opposite
the city of Tokio, there are an arsenal and dock-
yards, situated on a terrace cut in the side of a
mountain, and named Yokoska. The principal dock
is 407 feet long, 82 feet wide, and 21 feet deep ;
and is capable of accommodating the largest vessels
in the Japanese navy, or the greatest foreign ocean
steamers requiring repairs. Corvettes and other
ships of the British Navy have been refitted in this
dock, the water of which can be pumped out in
ten hours by three large steam-pumps. Its con-
struction occupied eighteen months, and cost the
Japanese Government 240,000 Mexican dollars.
A smaller dock has been constructed for the ac-
commodation of gun-boats, and craft of small
tonnage. The Admiralty also have a rope nianu-

YOKOSKA DOCKYARD. 115

factory, a foundryj a boiler manufactory, a mecha-
nical forge, a steam sawing-machine, and all the
necessary appliances for repairing ships. These
extensive naval works were begun in 1869 at the
suggestion of the French Ambassador, who having,
it was said, a pecuniary interest in the outlay for
their construction, appointed a superintendent,
with numerous assistants among his own country-
men, to construct the arsenal and dockyards, at a
cost which the Japanese exchequer could at that
time but ill afford. Be that as it may, under the
able management of M. Verny, and the other
officials, the works were finished in two years, and
in full operation. In the engineering department
all the appliances are erected, for casting plates
and cylinders of considerable dimensions. Like-
wise the machines and furnaces for bending thick
iron plates ; for rivetting boilers, drilling holes,
turning shafts, axles, and cylinders, planing the
surfaces of iron, besides steam saw-mills, and
planing machines for timber. Altogether a com-
plete establishment for constructing steamships of
war. However, these appliances have only been
practically employed in turning out gun-boats and
the lesser kinds of vessels in the navy. Although
they do every credit to the designers, and the
Japanese workmen employed, yet the great ''rams"

I 2

Ii6 JAPAN.

and ironclads have been built in private British
dockyards, with an excellence not to be attained
in the Japanese naval establishments. In like
manner, all the small arms, especially cutlasses
and sword-bayonets are manufactured in the ar-
senal of Yokoska ; together with the smaller ord-
nance, and ammunition, but the large Armstrong
guns of twelve to thirty-six tons are made in
England, besides heavy Krupp guns in Germany.
In the workshops and docks at Yokoska there are
Japanese superintendents drafted from the cadets
at the Naval College, who in acquiring the requisite
experience supersede the foreigners, and this is
the policy in other departments.

Without entering into details in the list of all
the vessels it will suffice to mention the Rioyo-kan,
as an iron-clad covered with 3! inch plate, having
a capacity of 1300 tons. It has engines of 280
horse-power, armed with two lOO-pounder Arm-
strong guns, eight 64-pounder muzzle-loaders, and
its crew consists of 275 men. The ram Adsuma-
kail has an engine of 500 horse- power, and is
armed with one 300-pounder, and two 70-pounders,
all muzzle-loaders. The corvette, Nitsin-kan, of
1000 tons, and 250 horse-power, is armed with a
7-inch Armstrong, and six 60-pounders with a
crew of 145 men. The Kagiisa-kan has a good

FORMIDABLE MEN- OF- WAR. 117

engine of 300 horse-power ; is armed with one
lOO-pounder, four 50-pound ers^ and one 20-pounder,
with a crew of 130 men. The steam corvette
Malacca (formerly Enghsh) of 1400 tons, and 300
horse-power, is now called the Tiikiila-kan, and is
equipped as a training ship for sea service, besides
the Fiisiyaina-kan, harbour training vessel for cadets
at the naval college. Four gun-boats complete
that first list, namely the Wiuiyo-kan^ Mosi-kan^
Hosholan, and Thabor-kan, each armed w^ith from
four to six heavy guns, and crews from sixty to
seventy men. The transport Osaca-maru, and a
few others, may be employed in case of need ; but
the older gun-boats are useless for purposes of
war, and could only be serviceable as hospital and
store-ships. Since then (1874) the service has been
augmented by some of the largest and strongest
ships in the Japanese navy. Among them is the
Saiki-kaiiy and Kasiiga-kan^ two brigs of war, and
the Hiyi-kan, a corvette built at Pembroke dock-
yard. But the monarch of the fleet is the Foosoo-
kaiiy launched from the yard of Messrs. Samuda
Brothers, about a year ago. This ship represents
the most advanced type of a vessel combining high
speed with thick armour, heavy armaments, mode-
rate size and great handiness. It is 220 feet long,
48 feet bread, 2343 tons burthen, with a displace-

ii8 JAP AX.

ment of 3000 tons, and has a main-deck battery
protected by armour S inches thick, in which are
four of Krupp^s long 24 centimetre breechloading
guns. The weight of these guns is 15 tons, and
their caHbre 7 inches. There is an upper-deck
battery with two of Krupp's long 17 centimetre guns.
The engines are twin screw of 3500 horse-power,
and the ship is provided with a powerful ram, and
a running-in bowsprit.

There are several other vessels of the corvette
class, and many new ones of the gun-boat size,
with heavy armaments, so that the Japanese navy
at the present day comprises no fewer than thirty
ships of war capable of contending with even a
formidable enemy in action. In addition to these
fighting ships, there is a third training vessel,
larger than the other two, for cruising in foreign
waters, with a crew of naval cadets on board to
learn practical seamanship. It is named Tsiihiha,
registers 1033 tons, and has an engine of 200
horse-power. This steam vessel was originally
built for the British navy, and purchased by the
Japanese Government from the Admiralty. It is
built of teak timber, and fitted up in the best style
for the officers and cadets, as well as the Japanese
seamen. There are three English instructors on
board, detailed from the British navy — a gunner,

JAPANESE SEAMEN. 119

boatswain, and an able seaman, each proficient in
his department. They are the only foreigners on
board ; the commander, captain, lieutenants, and
other officers are Japanese. Altogether there are
generally on board during a cruise, twenty-five
officers_, thirty-six cadets, 232 seamen, and seven-
teen marines. The cruises at first were undertaken
annually to Chinese ports on the mainland, and
the island of Formosa. At length they were ex-
tended across the Pacific Ocean to the coast of
California, visiting San Francisco and other ports,
and in time may circumnavigate the globe. Dur-
ing these voyages the English instructors have
reported favourably upon the intelligence, activity,
and efficiency of the officers and cadets, saying
that they were equal to an average European class
of seamen, while the cadets showed an anxiety to
learn navigation, which exceeded that to be found
among those destined for our own navy.

Regarding the important point of finding suffi-
ciently skilled sailors to man this newly-organized
fleet, the Japanese Admiralty had abundant re-
sources from Vvdiich to choose. As a rule their
sailors are handy men on board ship, equal to those
of any maritime nation in the world ; for they have
been accustomed to sail their junks under all diffi-
culties of navigation, and frequently during the

I20 JAPAN.

dreaded cyclones which sweep their seas. But
those who have been selected to act as gunners on
board the fleet, in manipulating the heavy ord-
nance, find their energies strained to the utmost.
Those who know this new style of gunnery, inform
us that it requires the strongest seamen in the
British Navy, to handle and fire the guns of twelve,
twenty or thirty tons. Among the Japanese
sailors there are few equal in physical strength to
our able seamen. As a rule they are smaller men,
of slender build, and become very soon tired at
their guns in action. Hence the firing parties
have to be relieved more frequently than in Euro-
pean war-ships. However, both officers and men
are imbued with a brave, warlike spirit, which
they have shown when coming into contact with
foreign squadrons.

CHAPTER VI.

EDUCATION AND RELIGION.

While the army and navy of Japan have been
reorganized, or rather reconstituted on the basis
of European armaments, the education of the
higher classes of the people has been completely re-
modelled after the collegiate institutions of western
nations. In the inauguration of this the most im-
portant innovation on the ancient institutions of the
country, it is to the credit of the more powerful
Daimios that they were the first to invite foreign
teachers to educate their youth in the languages,
and educational systems of Europe most suitable
to them. Among these noblemen were such men as
Satsuma, Chosiu, Nagato, Tosa, who vied with each
other in establishing schools in the provinces, under
the direction of English, French, and German
teachers, who instructed the scholars in these lan-
guages, but the chief subjects were mechanics,
chemistry, and medicine — and the tuition was in-
tended probably more for warlike than peaceful

122 JAPAN.

purposes. Be that as it may, when the Imperial
Government took over the territories of these
old feudal barons in 1868, and Tokio became
the Mikado's residence, few schools or foreign
teachers existed in the capital, compared with
those in the cities and towns in the provinces.

Under these circumstances the government saw
the importance of establishing without delay, a
central college in the city, under imperial auspices,
to which the most promising pupils of the pre-
paratory schools might be sent in order to com-
plete their education. The project when put into
practice, was availed of with avidity by the youthful
aspirants after foreign knowledge and acquire-
ments ; so that it soon became another marvellous
example of that rapid acquirement of western
civilization which so eminently distinguishes the
Japanese from all other eastern races. In a few
months nothing but mere primary schools remained
in the provinces, and all eligible scholars prosecuted
their studies further at Tokio university, to which
the government had invited the best teachers at
more remunerative salaries. Students came by
hundreds from every corner of the realm, so that
the limited accommodation, and small staff of
teachers, were not sufficient to meet the daily in-
creasing number of applicants.

SCHOOLS ON EUROPEAN SYSTEMS. 123

In this emergency, some active men improved
the occasion. On seeing that the government esta-
blishments did not suffice, they formed themselves
into companies, and engaged foreign teachers, until
English, French, and German schools sprang up in
various buildings in the city. A few months' experi-
ence, however, served to show these educational
speculators, that there was little or no chance of
making them profitable undertakings. They found
that among a people so comparatively poor as the
Japanese, a private school would never do much
more than pay its expenses. Accordingly as the short
contracts with the teachers expired — school after
school was closed, till at the end of the year out of
eighteen that had been started but two were left.

Meanwhile the wealthy patrons saw the necessity
of enlarging the best of these establishments. First
in rank among the private schools, stood those
named Fakitzawa and Nainakiira, for teaching the
students the various branches of ordinary educa-
tion in English. The former contained 200, and
the latter 150 pupils. Only one Englishman
superintended in each school, in the higher classes,
while those on the lower forms were under the
charge of Japanese, well-versed in the English
language. The course of study w^as very simple,
including orthography, writing from dictation,

124 JAPAN.

reading aloud, and conversation. The terms were
equivalent to two shillings per month for each, and
few of the scholars attended more than two classes.
This was the charge for day scholars, but the real
pecuniary strength of these schools came from the
payments of boarders, who paid six sillings per
month, in addition to the school fees. At the out-
side therefore, these emoluments did not exceed
ten shillings per mensem, for an average of six
months maintenance and learning, neither the fare
nor accommodation being of a high character.

It was otherwise in the Osaka Gacco, the most pre-
tentious of the private schools, designed to educate
the sons and chief retainers of the nobility. It
contained about thirty-five pupils, one of whom
was brother-in-law to the Mikado. This was con-
sidered the most expensive school in the city,
the fees being equivalent to three and four pounds
a month, including board ; which will appear
almost ridiculously low, compared with the terms of
our own first-class schools. Instruction was given
in Chinese as well as English, the former language
continuing to be the ancient classic of the aristocracy.
The only other private school worth mentioning
was that of Tosa, where all the pupils came from
the province of that name, and were supported
by their old chieftain. There were two teachers,

EDUCATIONAL MESSAGE OF THE MIKADO. 125

an Englishman and a Frenchman. Besides these
there were many smaller schools in which English
was taught by Japanese teachers, the terms being
two shillings per month. There were also about
200 pupils under the care of English and French
missionaries who paid three shillings per mensem.

When all the arrangements were made by govern-
ment to open the colleges and schools in Tokio on
the augmented scale of fees, they advised the
Mikado to inaugurate the event, by calling the
assembly of ex-Daimios together, and delivered to
them a message touching the educational interests,
not of one, but of all classes of his subjects. In
January, 1872, the meeting was called and held in
the Great Council Hall, which was well filled on
the occasion, most of the chief nobles attending.
The message was a lengthy and remarkable docu-
ment, its purport being based on the Japanese
reform policy, which may be gathered from the
following extract : — " In order to secure the result
of industry and perseverance, nothing else is
necessary but to develope knowledge and to
polish the talents ; nothing else is required but to
fix the eyes upon the aspect of the civilization of
the world ; to cultivate pursuits of actual utility ;
to go abroad for purposes of study in foreign
countries, and to learn practically. It may suffice

126 JAPAN,

for those whose advanced age precludes their
being able to study at home, to make a tour
abroad ; to widen their circle of knowledge by
seeing and hearing, thus to impove their under-
standing. In consequence, too, of the want of a
system for the education of women in our country,
many of them are deficient in intelligence. Be-
sides, the education of children is a thing which is
connected intimately with the instruction of their
mothers, and is really a matter of the most abso-
lute importance. There is, therefore, of course, not
the slightest objection to those who go abroad
taking their wives, daughters, or sisters with them,
so that they may learn that the instruction of
females in foreign countries has a good foundation,
and may become acquainted with the right sys-
tem of educating their children. If you will, all
of you, really give your attention to this question,
and exert your powers of industry and persever-
ance, there will be no difficulty for us in advanc-
ing in the region of civilization ; in laying the
foundation of wealth and strength, and in running
equally in the race with the other countries in the
world. Do you, therefore, take well to heart our
wishes ; each of you do his best, and assist us in
gaining the object of our hopes."

In pursuance of this message, an edict was pro-

SCOPE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE S CHOOLS.

mulgated defining the scope of the Japanese system
of education, as follows : — The administration of
learning in the whole country was to be directed
by the Mombusho, or Educational department
alone, and the entire area of the islands to be
divided into seven circuits, in each of which a high
school was to be established. Inspectors were
appointed in these districts, to each of whom twenty
or thirty schools were assigned. All subjects,
whether nobles, gentry, or peasants, who went to
school were to report this fact to the inspector,
and if the younger members of the family did not
attend,, the reason for not doing so was to be duly
reported. The time of study was five hours a day
for six months, and the establishments divided into
high, middle, and primary schools, while all
teachers were qualified by diplomas from Tokio
University. In addition to a thorough provision
for education at home, a certain number of students
were to be educated abroad at the Government
expense. This educational law, although only
promulgated in the middle of 1872, was so rapidly
and extensively carried into effect about eighteen
months afterwards, that Taranaka, Vice-Minister
of Public Instruction, furnished a detailed state-
ment showing that there were 1799 private schools,
and 3630 government schools. Attendinor these

128 JAPAN.

under instruction were 338,463 male, and 109,637
female pupils, to which number may be added
30,000 in the higher schools, making a total of
480,000 persons or one in sixty-eight of the entire
population. Since then the proportion has been
yearly on the increase, without any falling off in the
average attendance ; so that although education is
not exactly compulsory, the poorer classes show a
more laudable desire to have their children educated,
than obtains among similar classes in our own
country. At an approximate estimate the number
of pupils of all classes has increased to not less than
700,000.

The principal establishment In operation at Tokio
is named the Dai Gakko^ or Great College, and
may be termed the University, as it includes several
separate colleges for the study of medicine, juris-
prudence, philosophy ; mining, engineering, and
agricultural science, as also a polytechnic college.
The other schools are the Ergo Gakko, the Giiwai
Kohl Go GakkOy the Ko Gakko, Riyo preparatory
school, and the Naval College preparatory school.
All these are simply schools for teaching languages ;
the students being drafted to the various colleges
of the city. The Riyo Gakko is the English
language school, and was formerly a branch of the
Go Gakko, or school for foreign languages ; but the

COLLEGES FOR FORELGN TUITION. 129

study of English having assumed greater importance
than all the others combined, it has been erected
into a separate school. There are on an average
300 pupils who are taught by ten English and
three Japanese masters. The pupils enter by exa-
mination, and are expected to remain three years ;
but in certain cases this is reduced to two. They
are divided in respect to pecuniary ability into
three classes ; the first paying eight shillings, the
second four, and the third two shillings a month.
The major part of the scholars come from the
provinces, but only about seventy reside in the
boarding quarters, the terms being rather high, or
about twenty shillings a month. Generally nearly
all of them belong to the third class, but it should
be noted that this distinction is not known outside
the director's room ; and no boy, whatever his rank,
receives more favour than another. As a rule, they
are polite, studious, and cheerful ; but as unlike
English boys as could possibly be imagined.
Many of them are obliged to wear spectacles,
through having overworked their eyes, and others
in their anxiety to get on, ruin their healthy and
sometimes become insane.

As a rule these schools established on the
European systems are for teaching languages,
although in the Eigo Gakko and others, arithmetic,

K

I30 JAPAN.

history and geography, are also taught and ex-
plained in the Japanese language. The great aim
of the directors is to turn out students capable of
speaking and writing English with fluency and
correctness. Half-yearly examinations are held,
and the best pupils are promoted, either to higher
classes, or to the Imperial College. The Ko Gakko
Riyo and Imperial Naval College Preparatory
Schools, are also English schools, and the course of
study is the same as in the Eigo Gakko. The first
contains 150 scholars, and four teachers. The
pupils on finishing their course enter the Imperial
College of engineering. The Naval Preparatory
School has ninety scholars and two teachers ; the
pupils as they become eligible are sent to the Naval
College. The Gtcivai Koktc Go Gakko, or Foreign
Language School, contains four divisions : first,
the German, with 200 pupils and five teachers ;
second, the French, with 150 pupils and four
teachers ; third, the Russian, with seventy pupils
and two teachers ; and fourth, the Chinese, with
forty pulpils and one teacher. The students in the
French department are eligible for admission to
the Imperial Military School, and those in the
German to the Medical School. Until recently
instruction has been given in the Imperial College
in English, French, and German ; but the Depart-

SINTOO AND BUDDHIST RELIGION. 131

ment of Education at the capital has decided that
now and for the future Enghsh only shall be used.
This decision may be regarded as marking the
victory which the English language has gained
over its competitors in Japan. The number of its
students in the Government Schools is roughly
estimated at 3000, those in private at 5000, and both
are increasing. As far as can be ascertained, the
combined number of the French and German
students may be reckoned at 4000, or half that of
the English.

In planning their comprehensive scheme, as
shown in the foregoing facts, the Minister of
Education and his colleagues in the government,
determined that it should be of a secular character
in so far as is consistent with the fundamental
tenets of the Sintoo faith — the ancient religion of
Japan. At the same time no schools or colleges
were established for special tuition in theology,
nor were arrangements made for teaching these in
the new seminaries ; the precepts and practice of
Sintooism and Buddhism being taught by the
ecclesiastical functionaries in the temples, many of
whom were of noble and even imperial rank.
Some of these temples are the finest edifices in
Japan, and the number of smaller shrines far
exceeds that of any country in the world of

K 2

132 JAPAN.

equal extent and population. Those dedicated
to the Buddhist creed are the most numerous, some
■with colossal images of that deity, and bells of
great magnitude. To a certain extent both
churches possessed lands, the revenues of which,
together with the offerings of their worshippers, and
the addition of contributions by the wealthy
Daimios, enabled the priests to live in luxury and
maintain the tem.ples in grand state. Since the revo-
lution, these emoluments have been diminished by
the absorption of the ecclesiastical with the feudal
lands, except the ground on which the temples and
adjacent buildings stand. While both creeds are
tolerated, a distinction has been made in withdraw-
ing all pecuniaiy support from the Buddhist abbots
and priests, while the Sintoo dignitaries and their
subordinates have received indemnity for the loss
of their lands and incomes. Consequently, al-
though the ancient Tingisho, or department for the
worship of the Sintoo gods, has been abolished
w^ith the feudal system, yet under its reformed state
it may be denominated the imperial creed. The
Mikado still continues the worship, as these so-
called gods are said to be the founders of his empire
before his great ancestor Zinmoo. Among the old
nobility and grand councillors of the court, many
follow their sovereign, but others, imbued with
scepticism, make no profession of any religion.

SINTOO WORSHIPPERS. 133

Without entering into the tenets of the Sintoo
mythology and cosmogony, on which the ancient
national religion of Japan is based, it will suffice
to say that the name is derived from the Chinese
character shin or sin, signifying spirit or god. But
the Japanese name of this religion is Kami-no-
michi, meaning " The way of the gods," which the
Chinese having translated into Shintaoic, the
Japanese subsequently adopted that appellation.
Of all the gods so essentially belonging to Sintoo
mythology, none seem to be objects of worship,
except a female deity named Ten-sio-dai-zin, and
she, though the especial patron deity of Japan, is
considered too high and powerful to be addressed in
prayer, save through the mediation of the Kami, or
of her descendant the Mikado. The kami are again
divided into superior and inferior, 492 being born
gods, or perhaps spirits, and 2640 being deified
or canonized men. The last of the terrestrial gods,
having married a mortal woman, left a mortal son
upon earth, who was said to be no other than
Zinmoo, " The Divine Warrior," the founder of the
Mikado dynasty.

Sintoo in its general meaning is not applied to
the religion, but to its worshippers, w^ho differ
essentially from Buddhists, inasmuch as they are
not idolaters. Their beautiful temples are un-
polluted by idols, and the only material incentives

134 7APAh\

to devotion they contain, are a mirror, the emblem

of the soul's perfect purity, and what is called a

gohei, consisting of many strips of white paper,

which are inscribed with moral and religious

sentences. The temples possess, indeed, images of

the kami to whom they are especially dedicated,

but those images are not put up to be worshipped ;

they are kept with their temple treasures, in some

secret receptacle, and only exhibited on particular

festivals. On ordinary occasions the worshippers

begin with a visit to a temple, sometimes to one

especially appointed for the day. On approaching

the door each Sintoo, clad in a dress of ceremony,

performs his ablutions at a reservoir provided for

the purpose ; he then kneels in the verandah,

opposite a grated window, through which he gazes

at the large metal mirror ; then offers up his

prayers, together with a sacrifice of rice, fruit, tea,

wine, or the like ; and when he has comipleted his

orisons, depositing money in a box, he withdraws.

The remainder of the day he spends as he pleases,

except when appropriate sports belong to it. This

is the common form of kami-worship at the temples

which are not to be approached with a sorrowful

spirit but in joy and gladness, lest the former in

sympathy should disturb the happiness of the gods.

The money contributions, deposited by the wor-

SIN TOO FESTIVALS. 135

shippers, are destined for the priests belonging to
the temple. They are called Kami Nttsi, or " the
landlords of the gods ; " and in conformity with
their name, they reside in the houses built within
the grounds of their respective temples. They can
marry, and their wives become priestesses, to
whom specific rites and duties are allotted, includ-
ing naming children.

At high festivals these quiet and modest cere-
monies are changed into occasions for exercising
noisy merriment at the temples under the guise of
religious ceremonies. The celebration of holidays
and festivals in Japan, seems to be a duty, which
all classes of the people alike, most eagerly and
zealously perform. The Japanese are essentially
a holiday-keeping race ; and the universal happi-
ness and rejoicings of the people at such festive
gatherings, cannot fail to excite deep interest in
any foreigner who mingles among the native
throng on these occasions. As already remarked
Sintooism in its outward aspect differs materially
from Buddhism in this respect. The latter has
more austerity in its worship, and condemns all
exhilarating feelings, regarding sorrow as almost
inseparable from this life ; while the former, on
the other hand considers happiness and enjoyment
as the one object in life. Their festivals are seasons

136 JAPAN

of unusual mirth, and the worshippers deem it
very unfit to approach the mirror-shrine of the
Kami, in a sorrowful or distressed spirit of mind.

Hence the day of festivity is begun with a species
of fun and merriment resembling what takes place
at English fairs and races. However, they have
altered with the march of progress, and lost much
of their splendour and attractiveness, since the
days when wealthy Daimios and their retainers
took part in the performance ; at the same time
the populace have not lost any of their ardour
and enthusiasm. For example : at the picturesque
town and port of Nagasaki, a Sintoo festival re-
cently took place in the autumn, when, as soon as
the day began to dawn, the people v/ere up and
out dressed in holiday attire, and wending their
way to the Suwa Temple, Nisiyama. All the
shops in the principal streets were closed, and
hidden from view by curtains, bearing upon them
the different crests of the families within. In front
of each shop, large lamps were suspended from
poles, a few of which were surmounted with
shades. At the temple the scene was one of great
interest. Crowds of people were gathered in the
open space before it, who looked on with intense
interest at the different performances, manifesting
their approval by shouts of applause.

SINTOO FESTIVALS. 137

To say that the proceedings were orderly would
not be strictly true, for notwithstanding a large
body of efficient police to keep the peace, there
was occasionally uproarious conduct, as organized
parties arrived in processional cars, containing
emblems and offerings for the shrine of the Kami.
Sometimes a car would be shaken to and fro by the
onlookers, some driving it forwards and others pull-
ing it back. The people, however, were full of good
humour, and seemed to enjoy the fun, as one by
one the different cars were brought into the open
space before the temple. Here they were laid hold
of, drawn forward, then backward, then whirled
round and round in a most ludicrous manner ; the
whole performance presenting a scene of complete
confusion, and causing much amusement.

The representations on the cars, symbolical of
something supposed to be pleasing to the gods,
were elaborately and ingeniously constructed, but
to a foreigner of a somewhat meaningless character.
One car carried on high a large solid silver cres-
cent, lodged in the cleft of a pine-tree, to represent
the new moon. Then came another with the figure
of a huge rabbit, standing on its hind legs, with
a kind of pestle and mortar in front, and at its
back a large circle of silver paper ; the whole de-
sign, by a stretch of the native imagination, having

138 JAPAN'.

a supposed resemblance to the full moon. Then
came a most absurd and wearisome dance by two
boys, dressed in what were supposed to be lions'
skins. Other figures of various devices were followed
in quick succession by men, who went through a
whirling dance, and then left the temple-ground
to perambulate the streets. The procession was
varied by singing and dancing girls at intervals.

Among their many reforms the Mikado's govern-
ment took cognizance of these festivals, not so
much on account of the revelry made by the
people at the shrines of his majesty's ancestors, as
the foolish extravagance of those who got up the
performances. It was well known that many of
them suffered after festivals through their extrava-
gance ; so during several years after the State
Revolution, which placed the descendant of Zin-
moo on the throne their celebration was forbidden,
but the prohibition was afterwards withdrawn,
when the people resumed their performances on a
more economical scale, While the prohibition
lasted, the government improved the occasion to
indoctrinate the people into the tenets which Sin-
tooism, as a religious and political doctrine, bears
out as the creed of the imperial dynasty, based on its
de-scent from the Kami or gods. These tenets
were embodied in a " Government Treatise on

DOCTRINES OF THE SINTOO RELIGION. 139

Religion and Politics," lim Miii Koku Dai I. It
was published at the old metropolis of Kioto by
the imperial printers, and also at Tokio ; with the
object of making known the institutions of Japan
as *^ The country of the gods," and of declaring the
intentions of the Imperial Government relating to
them. The government then advises that "the
officials, and not only they but all well-disposed
men, will give their earnest attention to this
object, and will exert themselves to instruct all
persons down to the women and children in the
principles of this treatise." Apparently the chief
object in view was to impress upon the people
generally that the Mikado, whom they had only
known as a kind of myth from being god-descended,
was now going to rule the realm in person. The
effect of his appearance in public at the capital has
been to divest him of this sacred character, and
they look on him with indifference.

It is rather a lengthy document, but the following
paragraphs show its tenor, and the presumptuous
claims of the Japanese to a celestial origin which
equals if it does not exceed those of the Chinese : —
" Man is the sublime essence of all things. Be-
tween heaven and earth there is no more honourable
thing than man. Our country is specially called
the country of the gods ; and of all countries in

140 JAPAN.

the world, there are none, the institutions of which
excel those of our country. Is it not a disgrace
past speaking of, that the privileged being called
man, who dwells in the excellent country of the
gods, should pass his life in heedless vanity ! Man
differs from the birds, and from the beasts, in that
he can discern the laws of reason, and in that he
has a heart capable of gratitude and virtue.
Loyalty and filial piety are also the essence of the
heart of man. He, who in ever so slight a degree
is wanting in this heart, has the face of a man but
the soul of a beast, and though he be shaped as a
man, yet is he even less than the birds and beasts.
If then a man wishes to fulfil his duties as a man^
and having been born in the country of the gods,
desires not to turn his back upon the spirits of
that country, let him above all things bear in mind
the privilege of being born a Japanese, and set
his heart upon repaying the debt of gratitude
which he owes to his country." This savours of
the ancient privilege of a man being born a
Roman, and in modern times of ourselves having
the privilege of being Englishmen ; but the Japa-
nese surpass these terms of nationality as they are
born in the country of the gods, and have for their
reigning monarch a descendant of the gods.

Next follows a paragraph on the god-derived

POLICY OF THE SINTOO RELIGION 141

institutions of the country, which reads very
curiously after the revolution that has occurred in
them, but the purport is to show the sacred descent
of the Mikado, unchanged in the dynasty by any
broken link : — " We have said that the institutions
of the country of the gods excel those of all other
countries. The heavenly ancestors of the emperor
of old created this country, and established duties
of men in their mutual relations. Since that time
the line of emperors has never been changed.
Generation has succeeded generation in the rule of
this country, and the imperial heart has ever been
penetrated by a tender love for his people. In
their turn the people have reverenced and served
generation after generation of emperors. In
foreign countries the lines of princes have been
frequently changed ; the people owe their sove-
reign a debt of gratitude which extends over two
or three generations ; the relations of sovereign
and subject last for two hundred or three hundred
years ; the prince of yesterday is the foe of to-
day, and the minister of yesterday is the rebel
of to-morrow. In our country we have no such
folly. Since the creation of the world we have
remained unmoved ; since the creation of the
world the imperial line has been unchanged, and
the relations of sovereign and subject have been

142 JAPAN.

undisturbed : hence it is that the spirit of gratitude
has intensified and grown deeper and deeper. The
especial point in which the institutions of our
country excel those of the rest of the world, is the
* religion of the gods,' which has been established
by the heavenly ancestors of the emperor," — that is
the doctrine of what we term Sintooism.

These pretensions to a divine origin for the
national religion of Japan, and the dynasty of the
Mikado, are no mere figure of speech, in this
government treatise. They have been in force
from time immemorial, and when foreigners entered
the country many centuries ago, with missionaries
to introduce Christianity, they assailed not only
the religion of the country, but also its political
condition. It was a Christian war which caused
the cruel massacre of converts at Nagasaki, more
than two centuries ago, and led to the expulsion
of foreigners from Japan, except those belonging
to a Dutch factory. The fact is that the Chris-
tian faith if put into practice would sap the foun-
dation of the Mikado's authority, and hence the
persecution of converts. As we have seen, the
masses consider that authority to be of divine
descent ; therefore, a decree, tolerating the spread
of any foreign religion would attack that behef.
Happily, persecution of converts and expulsion of
missionaries no longer prevail.

MISSIONARIES RESIDENT A T TOKIO. 143

Although no ordinance has been promulgated
sanctioning missions, nevertheless they are tole-
rated. The following have been established at
Tokio : — American Baptist Missionary Union,
American Episcopal Mission, American Methodist
Episcopal Church Mission, American Presbyterian
Mission, American Reformed Church Mission,
English Church Missionary Society, English
Church Society for the Propagation of the Gospel,
Medical Mission of the U. P. Church, Scotland,
and Mission of the Methodist Church, Canada.
At Yokohama there are several branches of these
Missions, besides a female mission_, and sisters of
charity. In all, they are conducted by an average
of sixty men, and thirty ladies.

As might naturally be expected from what has
been stated regarding the ancient national creed of
Japan, being a political as well as a religious institu-
tion, both the secular rulers and priests were jealous
of any foreign religions being introduced. At the
same time, when they appeared to be of a highly
moral nature, and did not interfere with the sacred
laws of the realm, no opposition was made to their
introduction. Hence, when the Christian faith was
first propagated by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuit
missionaries, they were allowed to make converts,
not only among the lower classes, but also amongst
the wealthy and noble ; so that by the beginning

144 JAPAN.

of the seventeenth century, they claimed several of
the Dalmios and the female members of their
families as converts. Then, seeing the hold thus
obtained, they endeavoured to overturn the national
religion, and secure some of the revenues from the
temples to support and spread the Christian faith
in the papal form. Immediately this was seen to
attack both the mythical and material foundations
of their worship of the Kami, and obedience to
the Mikado, the foreign creed was denounced and
proscribed ; the foreigners were expelled from the
country, and a cruel persecution with fire and sword
ultimately swept the converts into the pits, and
from the precipices of perdition, a persecution which
culminated in the oft- told tale of the torture and
destruction of thousands in the harbour of Nagasaki
on a rocky islet which the Dutch named Pappenberg,
or Pope's Hill. Afterwards a factory was formed
by government traders from the Netherlands on
the artificial island of De-sima, at the town of
Nagasaki, but they and their shipmasters were not
allowed to traffic, until they trampled on an emblem
of the cross, and declared that no Christian books
comprised part of their cargoes. After an occupa-
tion of two centuries these restrictions were with-
drawn, and recently the barriers were cleared away
between the islet and the mainland.

BUDDHISM AND SJNTOOISM COMPARED. 145

Considering these cruel and stringent measures
against the introduction of Christian tenets into
Japan, it appears anomalous that the admission
and practice of Buddhism has not only been
tolerated, bat in the spread of temples for wor-
shippers, and a powerful hierarchy, it has for cen-
turies vied with Sintooism, m its dignitaries, and
the number of attendants among the people. This
has arisen chiefly from the fact that the tenets of
Buddhism, in their nebulous doctrine, assimilate to
a certain extent with the mythology of Sintooism.
The Sintooist has but a vague notion of the im-
mortality of the soul ; of an eternal state of future
happiness or misery, as the reward respectively of
vice and virtue ; or of separate places whither
souls go to after death. To the good. Paradise
is allotted, and they enter the realm of the gods,
after heavenly judges have called them to account.
The wicked are condemned, and thrust into hell,
where they are punished by everlasting tortures.
Moreover, the duties enjoined on the Sintooist are
similar to those performed by devout Buddhists to
ensure happiness here and hereafter. These are : —
Preservation of pure fire, as the emblem of purity,
an instrument of purification ; purity of soul, heart,
and body, to be preserved, in the former by obedi-
ence to the dictates of reason and law, and in the

L

146 JAPAN.

latter, by abstinence from whatever defiles. There
are other duties, but these will suffice to show those
acquainted with the mystic doctrines of Buddhism,
and the practice of its tenets how they approach
Sintooism, although they differ greatly in the former
being idolatrous, and the latter discarding images
at their temples. Very probably, however, the
principal policy for its toleration was the absence
of any attempts on the part of its propagators to
interfere with the political prestige of the secular
rulers, an attempt which wrecked the introduction
of Christianity at the outset.

It is not necessary to enter into the complex
origin of Buddhism in India, and its introduction
into Japan, and the differences between the tenets
preached by the Bonzes in the two countries. Suf-
fice it to state that according to the Japanese
annals, the first Bonze, after many failures, esta-
blished his faith in the country, in the middle of the
sixth century of the Christian era. Where his
predecessors had failed in enlisting the favourable
opinions of the secular and clerical rulers, he suc-
ceeded by skilfully obviating objections, and shaping
his doctrines to suit national prejudices. He repre-
sented that the mother of Zinmoo, the first Mikado,
was an avatar or incarnation of Amida, or goddess
Ten-sio-dai-ziu, and hence the divine essence flowed

B UDDHISM INTR OD UCED FR OM INDIA . 1 47

in the veins of the living dynasty. At that time
the reigning Mikado's eldest son had a young boy,
whom the Bonzes proclaimed an avatar of some
patron god. This flattering announcement obtained
for him the training of the boy ; and he was careful
in educating him in the precepts of Buddha, which
principles he retained all his days, although he took
an active part in the government of his aunt, a
female Mikado— there being no Salic law in the
Japanese dynastic succession. As a great and
wealthy dignitary he founded several Buddhist
temples, and died a Bonze in the principal one
erected at Kioto.

Twelve centuries have passed since the successful
introduction of Buddhism into Japan, which before
that had spread from India to Central Asia, then
reached China, and subsequently Corea, from
whence it was carried to this archipelago, where
upon its thousands of isles, have been erected more
than 10,000 Buddhist temples. As the interior of
these are ornamented in the gaudiest style, and
innumerable images of Buddha and his attendant
deities gilded profusely, they have always proved
more attractive to the people generally than the
Sintoo temples. At the same time a worshipper
may attend both if he chooses, as they are free to
all ; while the Buddhists are divided into three

L 2

148 JAPAN.

classes, or " observances " suitable to several
capacities. One of the chief temples is the Foko,
in the south-east quarter of Kioto, where great ex-
hibitions have been recently held. Its enclosure
contains several edifices, the most considerable of
which is the Hall of Dai Butz, or Great Buddha,
which contains a colossal statue of the chief deity.
The image was first set up in the year 1576, by the
warrior Taiko Sama, but the saloon in which it was
placed became destroyed by an earthquake twenty
years afterwards. A son of Taiko in 1602 rebuilt
the hall, but the colossus^ which was of gilt brass,
having been materially injured by another earth-
quake sixty years afterwards, was melted down,
the metal used in coining copper money, and a
substitute of wood, covered with gilt paper erected.
This is still in existence. It represents Buddha
seated cross-legged in the Indian mode, upon a
flower of the lotus ; the body of the image is about
seventy feet high, and the entire statue with the
lotus about ninety feet. At a little distance from
the statue is a chapel called " The Tomb of Ears."
On entering this vast portico, which is eighty feet
high, on each side appears a huge figure, twenty-
two feet in height, representing two celestial kings,
who are the usual guards at the Buddhist temples.
Near it is another apartment containing an enor-

COLOSSAL IMAGE OF BUDDHA. 149

mous bell, said to weigh two million pounds, seven-
teen feet high, and struck with a beam of wood as
a clapper. Smaller statues are perched in every
niche and on every altar in the establishment, to
the number of many thousands.

In the vicinity of Yokohama, near Kamakura,
there still exists one of these colossal bronze images
of Buddha in fine preservation, which all foreigners
visit. In ancient times, Kamakura was the site of
an opulent city, but now, it is only a straggling
village, with the remains of num.erous temples that
once flourished there. This idol is not less than
thirty feet in diameter at the base, and forty feet
in height, the thumbs measuring nine inches in cir-
cumference. The proportions of the figure are
admirable, and it is composed entirely of copper,
cast in numerous pieces, neatly joined together, the
image being hollow inside. A door at one end
leads into the interior, lighted with windows at the
back ; and there are seen hanging up many strips
of paper, and small gilded images of Buddha, with
boxes for the offerings of the devotees who visit
the shrine. Outside, the image is surrounded by
a picturesque garden, with fine specimens of trees
and shrubs, many of which are trained and clipped
into curious forms. It is said to have been erected
upwards of six centuries ago. At that time it was

I50 JAPAN.

enclosed in a temple, the walls and roof being rent
afterwards by a severe earthquake, when they were
removed. The typical state of complete contem-
plation, which all good Buddhists hope to attain, are
well illustrated in the majestic repose of this colossal
bronze statue.

Not only have the earthquakes of this volcanic
country destroyed many of the ancient Buddhist
temples, but the era of revolution and progress is
likely to have an iconoclastic effect in destroying
the metal idols and great bells. The edict passed
for the withdrawal of state aid to this exotic creed
has reduced the emoluments and incomes of the
Bonzes to that extent that in many instances they
have been obliged to sell them for old metal to
obtain money for current expenses.

CHAPTER VII.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Numerous treatises have been written and pub-
lished by foreigners on the Japanese language ;
from the time of Kaempfer the Dutch doctor at
Nagasaki, two centuries ago, to the present day.
Although the members of that semi-prison factory
at De-sima had opportunities of acquiring and
studying the native tongue, yet from the jealous
exclusiveness that existed, in teaching outside bar-
barians any knowledge of the internal affairs of
the government and people, it is obvious that their
information, collected in a fragmentary manner,
would be as incorrect as that of the political con-
dition of the realm, with the figment of a spiritual
and temporal emperor. Indeed it was not until
the restoration of the ancient monarchy to its
legitimate power, the opening of the country to
foreigners, and the permission to intelligent Japa-
nese to go abroad, that a true knowledge was given

152 JAPAN.

to the world by oriental linguists regarding the
nature and genius of the tongue, both oral
and written. Among these orientalists, two
learned linguists came forward to translate its
features into European languages ; namely, Pro-
fessor Leon de Rosny, into French, at the Ecole
Imperiale in Paris, and Professor Summers into
English, at King's College, in London. Both the
lectures delivered, and treatises written by these
savants are excellent, but those of the former partake
more of the abstruse and theoretical character,
suitable for learned philologists, than is convenient
for our purpose, therefore we take the writings of
the latter for our text, as plainer and more practical.
Moreover, Professor Summers was aided by many
Japanese students sent to study in London at
government expense ; and he has been appointed
Professor of the English Language and Literature at
the University of Japan, during the past eight years.
Japanese as spoken and written by orators and
literati, is not a pure language, derived from one
original source like the Chinese, which it resembles,
but is of a composite nature, partaking largely of
that element. It consists partly of words, or
rather syllables and characters from the Chinese,
and partly of native and aboriginal words. In
writing it, the Japanese use the hieroglyphs of

ELEMENTS OF THE J AFAAESE LANGUAGE. 153

their neighbours, which they intermingle with
their own letters, which are arranged in a lengthy
alphabet. The use of Chinese monosyllables in
Japanese is similar to the use of Latin words in
English ; and the effect of this use of them is also
alike in both, for words drawn from Chinese, or
Japan-Chinese, raise the style of accentuation, and
give greater dignity to the phraseology. The
Sinico-Japanese, as it has been called, is the lan-
guage of the learned; and of literary compositions ;
but the simple alphabetic Japanese is the language
of the people and the lighter forms of writing.

While in the Chinese there are 142 radical charac-
ters as the basis of the hieroglyphs, the Japanese
employ only those forms by which they express
forty-eight syllables, which being sounded include
all our vowels and consonants, with additional
diphthongs, and triphthongs. Hence it has been
called alphabetic. As a written language this
alphabet is divided into two separate styles. The
first and simplest forms of the letters or syllables
are based upon the fundamental Chinese characters
as symbolical of their sounds. These in the origi-
nal are very complicated in outline and composi-
tion. In order to simplify this complexity for the
ordinary understanding, the Japanese expunged
most of the strokes, so as to give the elementary

154 JAPAN.

part of the character,* and named it i\\Q katagana
style.

But as if to compensate for this plainness of form,
compared with the original, they invented another
style of syllabary _, named hirakajia, also derived
from the Chinese, but from the running hand of
that language, which may be compared to our
own handwriting as differing from printed words.
This presents a very elegant appearance, but is
most difficult to the uninitiated, and to those who
cannot trace the Chinese character in these strange
forms. These syllabaries are called, I, Ro, Va,
from the first three, just as we sometimes call our
alphabet ABC. The whole are repeated by
young scholars in the four following lines of blank
verse, so as to impress it on the memory, like our
rhyme on the months : —

Iro va nivoveto toirinuiiwo,

Wagayo darezo toune naram,
U-wi no okuyamo kevu koyete,

Asaki yumemisi, evimo sezu.

This mode of learning one's letters is pretty
and poetical, as may be observed in the literal
translation : —

Colour and scent (desire and pleasure), pass away !
In our world what is enduring ?
Away goes the present day into being and is past ;
And it was a feeble dream, which causes astonishment.

I^ATAGANA AND HIRAGANA. 155

Foreigners desirous of learning Japanese, are
recommended by Professor Summers to commit
these syllables to memory, as not only forming
the alphabet, but the key to native dictionaries.
They also stand sometimes according to an ar-
rangement made by the Buddhists Bonzes, thus : —

a, ka, sa, ta, na, h, 07' fa, nia, ya, va, ^va.

i, ki, si, tsi, ni, h, ,, fi, mi, yi, vi, wi.

u, ku, su, tsu, nu, h, ,, fu, mu, yu, vu, wu.

e, ke, se, te, ne, h, ,, fe, me, ye, ve, we.

o, ko, so, to, no, h, ,, fo, mo, yo, vo, wo.

The katagana or simple forms of characters have
no variants ; but the hii'aganahdiS several, sometimes
as many as five and six forms for each syllable,
which is one of the difficulties in writing and read-
ing it. Besides these two sets of Japanese characters,
what may be called the plain and running hand,
they imitate the Chinese in having a variety of
styles of writing, and often intermingle all the
forms in the same piece of composition. At the
same time, as Sir Rutherford Alcock, formerly
British Minister at Yedo, remarks, " Although
they have adopted the whole collection of Chinese
characters, and learned to attach to each the ideas
belonging to them in China, the construction of
sentences is so completely different, that no China-
man can read a book written by a Japanese in the

156 JAPAiV.

Chinese characters, so as to fully understand any
sentence, nor can the Japanese understand Chinese
books." ''From this it must not be supposed,"
Professor Summers says, " that Chinese is useless
as a preliminary study to the Japanese, for it is
the very Hfe and soul of it ; and it only implies
that Chinese is not Japanese, any more than Italian
is Latin, or vice versa.''

Pronunciation of the Chinese symbols varies in
Japan ; such as fieji, for heaven, is shortened to ten;
while it is sometimes pronounced ame. In native
books, however, the necessary pronunciation is
generally given in hiragana or kaiagana at the side
of the Chinese characters. Euphonic changes
such as these, are clearly heard in speaking and
writing, and a very simple sign is given to show
the heavy or flat sound. For example^ the syllable
ha becomes/^, by the addition of a small circle (°)
to the right of the character, and if two points (")
are substituted, it is called ba. In the same way
ka^ becomes ga ; ta, becomes da ; sa, becomes za ;
and hoj becomes bo. The letters / and r become
convertible ; vowels contracted form diphthongs.

Japanese grammar in its construction differs in
some respects from those of European languages,
as, for example, in the notin — both substantive
and adjective — there are no cases. In its idiom

JAPANESE GRAMMAR. 157

and construction the language is similar to that
of China, and particles are used in both tongues for
similar purposes. That this is the case with these
declension-particles, is proved by the fact that
they are placed alongside the corresponding par-
ticles in Chinese, when the latter are printed. But
the particles referred to, do really modify and dis-
tinguish the relative position of the word in the
sentence. They show whether it is to be considered
the nominative, the genitive, or any other case. Wa
{va, or fa, or ba)^gay no, zvo,yori, 7ii,ye,diVQ the
particles used. They are suffixed to the crude form
thus : —

Nom. otoko ga, or otoko wa, . . . the man.

Gen. otoko no of the man.

Dat. otoko ni to the man.

Ace. otoko wo the man.

Voc. otoko . . , . • . man.

Abl. otoko yori .... by, or from the man.
0 Tokio ni, to, or near Tokio. 0 Tokio yori, from Tokio.

The plural of Japanese nouns is first formed by
repeating the word with certain euphonic changes :
that is, hito, man, becomes hito-bito, men ; hashi, a
bridge, becomes hashi-bashi, bridges ; kicjii, a king-
dom, kicni-gumy kingdoms. Secondly, by prefixing
tabi-tabi, or do-do, several, many. Third, by suf-
fixing tachi, domo, ra, or sytc. The quality of per-
sons is given, such as onago-tachi, ladies, onago-douio
females, or women in a familiar sense. The Japa-

158 JAPAN.

nese are exceedingly particular about using terms
of honour.

Pronouns in the Japanese grammar are some-
what remarkable, for they seem to be cognate with
no other language. Besides ivare, I or me, nanjiy
you, kara^ he or she, they have many forms which
imply honour to the person addressed, or humility
on the part of the person speaking. Thus, anata-
sama is the most respectful term for yoiL, your
lordship, or your honour ; anata is less so, and in a
descending scale are omaye, temaye^ and lastly teme
— which is only applied to a servant. They have
also carried into common life what the Chinese
have preserved for formal converse and style with
respect to the pronouns. They avoid using the
personal pronouns, but use some designation
for the person addressed ; thus Temaye (you)
means " the person before your hand ;" anata (you)
means " your side." Verbs are called dogi^ or
" words which change." Like the Chinese they
can express every shade of meaning shown by
the inflections of other languages. These variations
are in an earlier stage of development in the
Chinese than in the Japanese — for the latter
language has actually absorbed the auxiliary verbs,
which serve in the former the passive and the
various forms of tense^ mood, and so on.

Numerals are expressed thus : — Teki, one ; ni,

JAPANESE NUMERALS. 159

two ; sartj three ; shiy four ; go, five ; rok, six ; s-chl,
seven ; hachi, eight ; ki-ic, nine ; ji-21, ten ; y/-<? ich,
eleven ; ji-o m, twelve ; iii ji-o, twenty ; sha-kti, a
hundred ; s/ieji, a thousand ; vtaii, ten thousand ;
da-i ichy first ; da-i ni, second ; i cho-do, once ; ni,
dOy twice. There are also cardinal numbers belong-
ing to the native language of Japan : — /itots, one ;
fiats, two ; i?iits, three ; yots, four ; i-tsiito, five ;
nitito, six ; na 7iatSy seven ; yato, eight ; koko iiots,
nine ; and ts-o, ten.

Japanese as a spoken tongue surpasses all others
in the East in its melliflous sounds, especially
when uttered by young w^omen, who almost in-
variably accompany their expressive words with
a merry laugh. But, strange to say, this pleasing
harmony is confined almost entirely to what is
called the vulgar tongue of the people. The
superior classes have framed for their use a
language of their own at once stiff, almost fulsome,
and grave in expression. This dialect is difficult
to be understood by ordinary people, and requires
intense study to learn. In that respect it is similar
to the Corean language, where a dialect used by
the superior class is not understood by the inferior
classes, thereby constituting linguistic aristocracy.
It partakes of the style and diction of books, mixed
up with Chinese phrases, like our old books with
numerous Latin quotations. This pedantry was

i6o JAPAN.

formerly carried to such an extent among the
noblhty and Hterati, that there was scarcely a
single native work of which a great part was not in
the Chinese jargon ; yet to write in this manner
was the prevailing taste, as it was once in Germany
to write German-Latin. Like all other changes,
however, this exclusiveness of language — if it may
be so termed — is passing away, and the harmonious
dialect of the people is rising in the scale of society,
especially as it translates foreign languages better.
Moreover, unlike the Chinese, who have a distinct
dialect for each of the seventeen provinces, only
fluently spoken by the inhabitants of each, the
Japanese speak, read, and write their language,
with no material dialectic varieties. A native from
one province easily understands those who come
from other and distant parts of the empire, as
the variations are very trifling, in the interchange
of some letters.

Not only are Chinese phrases being discarded in
ordinary conversation and books, but foreign
words and idioms are replacing them, especially
English, which is now recognized as the only
language to be used in official intercourse with
foreigners. Moreover, in the lesson -books pub-
lished for native use, Roman letters have taken the
place of Japanese and Chinese characters.

COMPOUND WORDS IN JAPANESE. i6i

Instead of clinging to the ancient monosyllables,
varied by inflection, like the Chinese, the Japanese
have composed groups of syllables in order to form
words with due regard to euphony. In this
respect the language partakes — as well as in others
— far more of the genius of our western tongues,
than of the Indo-Chinese. The Japanese dictionaries
contain words of twelve, fourteen and sixteen letters,
such as takamdgahara, " paradise ; " novinokirimono,
"embroidered clothes;" kaneivoatskariisto^ "a cash-
keeper." Of these there are many in an ordinary
dictionary. To this it would be difficult to find a
parallel in any of the languages or dialects of
Eastern Asia. The compounding and framing of
words is carried on to such an extent that we have
been often strongly reminded of Greek and Ger-
man, which equally excel in this peculiarity. We
will give one instance, and this by no means one of
the most prolix : yama, " a mountain ;" yamabato,
" a wild pigeon ;'' yamatori, " a jungle-fowl ;" yavia-
ori, " a sphinx ; '^ yamagara, " a kind of sparrow;"
yamakaine, "a tortoise;" yamadatche/' d. highway
robber ;" yamakarasoo, " a raven ;" yainarasche, " a
breeze ;" diVid yamakakache, "a kind of snake."

As the language admits, according to fixed rules, ^^
infijiitnjn, of such combinations, w^e do not hesitate
to affirm that there is not a work in any language

1 62 JAPAN.

vvhich may not be translated into Japanese. Since
the country has been opened to foreigners, this has
been tested by competent translators, and found to
be the case, which confirms the above assertion
made more than forty years ago by a correspondent
of that valuable publication " The Chinese Reposi-
tory." He states further : — " This is more than
we can say of the Indo-Chinese languages, which
in this point are very defective. Hence v\'e may
easily conclude that Japanese is a very rich
language. But the most extraordinary thing of
all is that there .are no more than seventy or
seventy-two sounds, which constitute the elements
of the whole language. It is, perhaps, the
minimum to which the articulation of a language
may be reduced, and it shows how much can be
made of such limited elements. A syllable never
ends with any other consonant except n ; nor, with
the exception sk, ts, and ds, are any two consonants
used together. The language is, therefore, soft
and euphonic. With the exception of some few
labials and finals, all the letters of our alphabet
may be traced in the Japanese syllabary." If we
compare it in euphony and its melliflous intonation
by an elegant speaker, to any European language,
it is^ that of Italy, and it may appropriately be
termed the Italian of the East.

ANCIENT STUD V OF LITER A TURE. 163

From the time the Japanese acquired a written
language, literature was eagerly pursued by the
intelligent rulers and ecclesiastics. This period
dates back to the reign of the Mikado Oosin, who
flourished towards the close of the third century of
our era, and who encouraged the introduction of
the arts and literature of China. Hence the first
compositions of the literati were chiefly in the
Chinese language and characters, and inscribed on
thin sheets of bamboo or other vegetable materials
in their natural state. As time went on the
inventive genius of the nation was not satisfied
with merely copying Chinese, but, as we have seen,
they constructed out of that element the syllabic
systems denominated katagana and hiragana. This
was accomplished in the early part of the eighth
century, and found completely adapted to the oral
idiom of the inhabitants.

This formation of a national written language,
was greatly developed by the manufacture of
paper in Japan, from the mulberry bark, and
other native fibres, as early as the beginning of
the seventh century ; but the writing was all
executed by hand, as on skins in Europe at the
same period. Engraving the characters on wood
and printing in the Chinese manner was not intro-
duced until A.D. 1206, or about two centuries and

M 2

i64 JAPAN.

a half before the art was practised in Europe.
These facilities for producing many impressions of
works, advanced the literature of Japan with a
rapid pace, from age to age, as in our own and
continental countries. Nevertheless the books
published continued to be printed after the Chinese
model, and are to this day, with the exception of
those got up in foreign style, as already men-
tioned.

At first the books written were upon his-
torical subjects, connected with the imperial god-
descended dynasty, and works of learning in
the Chinese language ; to which it owes almost
everything, and which is to a certain extent
imbedded in Japanese literature. As the people
acquired a knowledge of the written language,
the authors, following the popular taste, issued
volumes of light literature, frequently of question-
able morality. But there is a world of poetry and
philosophy read only by the learned, and books
on these subjects form the higher class of Japanese
works. Books on moral philosophy, history, and
the natural sciences, are illustrated by wood
engravings, often highly coloured. This is the
most striking part in their books, and though
merely outlines, they are exceedingly well done,
both as regards matter and manner. They are

d

S T\ ^LES OF L ITER A TURE. 165

also profuse in educational works, in teaching
youth by the eye as well as the ear.

Historical subjects enter largely into the themes
and stories of Japanese authors, many of them
inculcating the teaching and exercise of virtue.
The following brief example illustrates this style
of literature :— " VIRTUE IS WORSHIP. During the
reign of Siyu-zigaku-in (A. D. 930), there appeared
a strange star. A famous astrologer, drawing the
auguries of this star, declared it was an omen of
great calamity to one of the commanders-in-chief
of the realm. At this time Nakahira was chief-
general of the left, and Saneyori of the right.
Saneyori and his family allowed themselves no
leisure, but went about worshipping at all the
Buddhist temples and Sintoo shrines in the
neighbourhood. In the family of Nakahira, how-
ever, no such thing was done. When the priest
who usually officiated at their worship perceived
this, he called on Nakahira, and greatly wondering,
inquired : ' Saneyori visits every place to offer up
supplications, that he may escape the calamity of
this present star. How is it that you do none of
this } ' Nakahira, having listened, replied : ' It is
even as you sa}^ Since it is said that this star
will certainly bring calamity on one of the two
chief-generals, the receiving of it lies evidently

1 66 JAPAN.

between us two, Saneyori and me. Weighing the
matter, I find that I am well advanced in years, and
talents I have none ; Saneyori, on the other hand,
is in the bloom of his years, and a man of excellent
abilities. Now, if my prayers should come to be
realized, and consequently the calamity were to
extend to Saneyori, this surely ought not to be so,
for the sake of the Imperial Court. Hence I have
been remiss in my own supplications, in order to
save the life of this man.' The priest hearing
this, and unable to suppress tears of emotion, said,
' Truly, is not this noble purpose the highest
worship possible } If there are gods and Buddhas,
the threatened calamity will surely not come upon
you and your house ! ' " The priest returned, and
the event showed his judgment to be correct.
Then follows a " Moral," applicable to officials and
servants who may be faithful to their masters, but
very apt to be false to their colleagues.

Books on Japanese history are numerous^ and
these, more or less, are imbued with a spirit of
Sintooism, and to render the reading lighter, they
are interspersed with tales illustrative of the text,
and sometimes the reverse, so that the chapters are
spun out indefinitely. For example, the " Illus-
trated History of Taikosama," a great warrior and
renowned general, consists of eighty-four octavo

HIS TOR V AND PRO VERBS. 1 67

volumes, and took four years to publish. In it is
a tale called " The Elfin Foxes," where the hero
is bewitched by them. In these respects the
writers have a fund of invention by telling fairy
tales, and also imaginary narratives, sometimes of
a comical character. Of the latter, '* The Travelled
Monkey " is very voluminous and popular, giving
an account of foreign countries in a satirical vein.
They are also fond of quoting proverbs, which are
numerous and pithy.

Oriental proverbs have been considered the
concentrated sagacity of the " Wise Men of the
East " — which has ever been the cradle of senten-
tious wisdom. It is true that the authors are not
often known, the oldest proverbs being the off-
spring of the accumulated wisdom of whole nations ;
and they are the expressions frequently of the
modes of thought and the feelings which rule vast
populations. It is curious and instructive to trace
the similarity of sentiments which go to prove the
unity of the human race in the proverbs of the
furthest East and the far West. Proverbs show
that the same human feelings and views prevail in
China and Japan, as actuated mankind in Europe.
For example : — " The child is father of the man,"
is expressed in, *' The heart of a child of three
years remains until he is sixty." Our plain pro-

1 68 ■ JAPAN.

verb, "As different as chalk from cheese," is
paralleled in, " As different as the moon and a
tortoise." " Too many cooks spoil the broth " is
quaintly put, " With too many boatmen, the boat
runs up a hill."

Dramatic productions ar^ not numerous, and
these generally are of a historical character, the
favourite themes, representing imperial personages
and great soldiers, Siogoons, and Daimios. " The
Repository of Faithful Men " is the title of a
typical drama, where the di^amatis personcB are
feudal barons and retainers espousing the cause
of the Siogoon, or generalissimo, who has over-
thrown his rival. When represented on the stage,
the characters are mostly clad in armour, which
makes the performance picturesque where there
is no scenery. In this respect the Japanese follow
the Chinese, and what obtained in Europe in
ancient times where no scenic effects were intro-
duced. Many of these dramas are couched in
poetic language, and the dialogues often display
smart repartee.

Poetry enters more largely than drama into
Japanese literature, but there are not many lengthy
poems, preference being given to odes, sonnets,
and songs. In the Hyak nin is ohm, or " Stanzas
from a Hundred Poets," the names of two com-

IMPERIAL POETRY. 169

posers are given as ancient emperors. The first
is by the Mikado Tenji, who flourished in the
seventh century of our era, and who selected a
humble theme in the following free translation : —

My lowly hut is thatch' d with straw,

From fields where frequent rice-sheaves stand ;
The autumn harvest is well nigh o'er,
Collected by my toiling hand.

Through tatter'd roof the sky I view,
My clothes are wet with fallen dew.

The second is by the Emperor li-too, and par-
takes of a religious character : —

The pleasant spring hath pass'd away,

The summer follows close I ween ;
And Ama's secret summit may
In all its grandeur now be seen ;
Of yore the drying ground,
Whiten'd with angels' robes, spread far around.

But simple admiration of nature in all its phases,
as exemplified in these picturesque islands, forms
the great bulk of these and other poetical subjects
Of course Fusiyama, the sacred volcanic mountain
is a favourite subject, as it is in the sketches on
Japanese books and ware : —

From where my home.

My lonely house on Tago's shore
Doth stand, the wandering eye may roam

O'er Fusiyama's summit hoar,
^Yhose lofty brow
Is whiten'd by the recent fallen snow.

170 JAPAN.

Songs are popular with all classes, and are
generally set to Japanese music. They are mostly
on love themes, and plaintive in style. The
Japanese are passionately fond of music, and their
traditions give the art a divine origin. Accord-
ing to that account, the sun-goddess, once upon a
time, in resentment of the violence of an ill-dis-
posed brother, retired into a cave, leaving the
universe in anarchy and darkness. Music was
devised by the gods to lure her forth. But, though
the device evidently succeeded and she returned to
enlighten the heavens^ it cannot be said that
Japanese music is the " Music of the spheres," to
enchant our ears. Like the style of language and
literature it follows the harsh Chinese melodies,
and is almost devoid of harmony — according to
European tastes — both in vocal and instrumental
performances. They have a written musical scale,
after the Chinese system, which differs from the
European scale in the position of the semi-tones,
or rather in not having true semi-tones, but three-
quarter tones instead. Of instruments there are a
great variety, both stringed, wind, and percussion,
none so perfect in tone as ours, but the rudiments
of almost every one are represented, from fiddles to
harpsichords, flutes to trombones, and cymbals to
big bass drums. But the tunes on the larger

SONG OF THE FLO I VN BIRD. lyi

instruments are most to be noted for their noise,
and the airs played on the smaller ones cannot
boast of" wood-notes wild." The most agreeable to
foreign ears is the So;io Koto, a kind of dulcimer-
harp, with thirteen strings ; each string having a
movable bridge, by shifting which the note is raised
or flattened in tuning. It is placed flat on the
floor, and the female performer, sitting in the usual
Japanese fashion, bends over it, and touches the
strings with both hands, her finger-tips being encased
in thimbles, which terminate in an ivory point, so
as to protect her nails from fatigue or injury.
Numerous are the quaint melodies played on this
instrument ; but as an accompaniment to the
voice, the Biwa, or lute, is more melodious, espe-
cially to such a pathetic song as the following : —

THE FLOWN BIRD,

The maple leaves are whirl'd away ;

The depths of the great pines are stirr'd ;
Night settles on the sullen day,

As in its nest the mountain bird.
My wandering feet go up and down,
And back and forth from town to town,
Through the lone woods and by the sea,
To find the bird that fled from me ;
I foUow'd, and I follow yet, —
I have forgotten to forget.

My heart goes back, but I go on,

Through summer heat and winter snow ;

172 JAPAN.

Poor heart, we are no longer one,

"We are divided by our woe !
Go to the nest I built and call, —
She may be hiding after all, —
The empty nest, if that remains.
And leave me in the long, long rains ;
My sleeves with tears are always wet —
I have forgotten to forget.

Men know my story, but not me —

For such fidelity, they say,
Exists not — such a man as he

Exists not in the world to-day !
If his light bird hath flown the nest,
She is no worse than all the rest ;
Constant they are not — only good
To bill and coo, and hatch the brood ;
He has but one thing to regret —
He has forgotten to forget.

All day I see the ravens fly,

I hear the sea-birds scream all night ;
The moon goes up and down the sky.

The sun comes in with ghostly light :
Leaves whirl, white flakes about me blow-
Are they spring blossoms, or the snow ?
Only my hair ! Good-bye, my heart.
The time for us has come to part ;
Be still ! you will be happy yet —
For death remembers to forget.

During the early annals of Japan, when the
country was isolated from foreign intercourse,,
there were no newspapers in circulation ; not even,
as far as we know, one in imitation of the " Peking
Gazette," which claims to be the oldest news-
paper in the world. However, not long after the

NA TIVE NE WSPAPERS. i ']i

restoration of the ancient dynasty, and the emanci-
pation of native energy from the thraldom of feudal-
ism, the native newspaper, after the foreign model,
became one of the new institutions of political
power. An enterprising party of literary students
at the university of Tokio were the first to publish
a Shimbmi, or newspaper, in native characters, and
on Japanese paper. It succeeded beyond the most
sanguine expectations, and its circulation spread
from the capital to the provinces. Other news
sheets were got up and published every three, five,
and seven days, to meet the demands of the public,
at least among the reading portion, who evidently
thirsted after new ideas and information.

Encouraged by the increasing sale of their
journals, caused in a great measure from the bold
language used in the articles, the editors launched
into censure of the government and the official
classes, sometimes so unmeasured as to call for
restriction. This was done by passing of a " Press
Law," empowering the authorities to punish of-
fenders by fines, confiscation, and imprisonment.
The consequences were that the editor of the
Manichi Shimbiin was condemned to three months
incarceration for a violation of the new law. Seeing
the necessity of opposing the violent political litera-
ture that sprung up, the government subsidized a

174 JAPAN.

respectable proprietor to issue the Nichi Nichi
Shimbim, which continues to this day as the semi-
official organ. Numerous other papers were pub-
lished, but many died out ; though the average
of those in circulation ranges from forty to fifty,
including several issued at the treaty ports. One
is named the Bankohc Satsiima, or News from all
Countries_, and another BankokiL Omna, for ladies.
In one year it was estimated that more than two-
and-a-half million copies were despatched through
the post-office.

Beside the printing of these native papers in
characters, there are many establishments for
using Roman letter types for elementary school-
books, which are got up by Japanese compositors
and printers only. Both the native and foreign
languages are printed in these, irrespective of
other character types. Altogether the Japanese
disposition to be self-dependent, is novv^here seen
to greater advantage than in the management and
details of these printing-offices for the publication
of books to educate themselves according to
European Ideas.

CHAPTER VIII.

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

Having traced the Japanese language and litera-
ture to a Chinese origin, we shall next find abun-
dant evidence that the arts and manufactures of
Japan have been derived from the same source.
There is this striking difference, however, with re-
gard to the fine arts, that they excel their teachers
in the delineation of Nature in all her varying
phases, except where a landscape forms the subject
of the artist. Indeed any drawing or painting re-
quiring an accurate outline, with foreground and
background, representing distance, is beyond the
talent of either — they seem to have no perception
of perspective. Many pictures, especially Chinese,
remind the spectator of Hogarth's caricature of
perspective, where a man on a hill in the distance
is lighting his pipe at a window of a house in the
foreground. At the same time, Japanese artists
are not so deficient in their knowledge of per-

176 JAPAN.

spective as the Chinese ; but still their best paint-
ings and sketches partake much of our so-called
bird's-eye view of a country. In- the numerous
representations of Fusiyama, which are the never-
failing delight of the people, that grand mountain,
which towers as high as Mont Blanc, is generally
drawn as if seen by an eagle soaring halfway up
its summit. Where the minor subjects of a picture
are given, such as a cascade falling over rocks, or
waves dashing upon a rocky shore, some artists
succeed in depicting the motion of the foaming
waters with living accuracy. The numerous ex-
amples to be seen of these prove that the artist
has sketched from nature, where his vision grasps
the subject, but when he extends the landscape,
he draws upon his imagination.

Oil-painting is unknown in Japan, in producing
artistic drawings for room decoration, or heavy
frames to hang up in galleries. Hence their
pictures are chiefly in water-colours on tough
paper, and have a roller at the bottom and top,
and are hung up like a map. To these are added in
portfolios, bold sketches with charcoal, and fre-
quently in ink ; clear in their outlines, and the
drawing as good as is compatible with ignorance
of perspective and anatomy. From this ignorance,
probably, arises their acknowledged inability to

ARTISTIC DEFECTS IN PICTURES. i']'j

take anything like a correct likeness, the professed
portrait-painters bestowing their care rather upon
the dress than the features of their sitters. This
is exactly following the Chinese fashion, where the
costumes are elaborately delineated while the faces
are more or less distorted, to give what may be
called the conventional and not the natural ex-
pression. Examples of these may be seen on the
porcelain vases, where females are represented v;ith
the acute-angled eye-lids which is considered
typical of beauty, which certainly does exist in
nature, but only to a limited extent compared
with other features of the eyes. In the male
portraits these characteristics are not so effeminate,
especially where it is that of a Daimio dressed in
full war panoply, and looking ''daggers" at his
enemy, while brandishing his sword. At the first
" International Exhibition " at Tokio in 1872, among
the ancient pictures, were portraits of great men,
such as Yoritomo, Taikosama, Nobunanga, Ashi-
kaga. and many others. But these were more or
less of an imaginary character, so that they should
appear to the Japanese spectator more god-like
than human, as objects for worship.

Besides scrolls hanging on the walls of chambers,
the Japanese screens of large dimensions, dividing
the more spacious ones into temporary rooms, are

N

178 JAP AX.

adorned with all kinds of artistic productions. On
these the paintings are chiefly representations of
birds and fish, the former generally singly and in
groups ; and the latter in a reproduction of their
native element, surrounded with aquatic plants.
In the drawing, colouring, and natural features of
these, the best artists excel their efforts at land-
scape pictures, so that it is scarcely to be supposed
some are done by the same hands. Here one
seems to concentrate all his talent in depicting
nature with scrupulous accuracy, and in many
instances has excelled in detail the best bird and
fish pictures by European artists whether in water-
colour or oil. Sometimes every feather and scale
are carefully copied from the living subject, giving
so vivid an effect to the representation, that it
startles the eye, as if about to leap from the screen.
In like manner insects are represented in their
most brilliant hues by their skilful management in
preparing water-colours. These are extracted
from minerals and vegetables, obtaining tints far
more brilliant and beautiful than ours. They also
excel in flower-painting, with excellent drawings of
grasses, ferns, creepers, shrubs, and trees ; but not
in depicting an extensive view of forest scenery.
At the same time all these and other minute
branches of the fine arts, it is evident — as a writer

ARTISTIC SKILL IN DETAILS. 179

expresses it — " The Japanese have for thousands
of years worshipped at Nature's shrine, watching
her every movement, and noting every change of
mood and costume with a loving eye, until each
detail of her marvellous handiwork, and each ex-
pression of her changeful features, are imprinted
on their minds, to be transferred to every work they
set their hands to do."

In former days, before the country, or rather the
treaty ports, were open to foreigners, few of these
artistic productions of high art were to be seen in
Europe, except at the Royal Museum of the
Netherlands, ^\'here they were sent by the Dutch
factory at Nagasaki, and these were not really of
the choicest kind. Now we have a superior collec-
tion at Kensington, and on all occasions of fine
art exhibitions, cases of Japanese art-productions
form some of the most interesting and valuable
exhibits. It is not, therefore, necessary to dilate
largely upon the excellence of the other branches
of Japanese art, which the intelligent reader may
have witnessed. Moreover, there are many speci-
mens of such, especially in lacquer- ware, comprising
cabinets, trays, and other articles, that come within
the purchasing means of the public. On these the
artists have displayed great taste, while the cabinet-
maker often exercises a degree of ingenuity that

N 2

i8o J A PAX.

surprises our own artisans. Indeed, it may be
said, that he is par excellence, the cleverest designer
and best workman in cabinet work in the world.
This especially applies to the perfect fitting of the
drawers in their recesses, which pull out and push
in with the suction of the air ; never in a loose
manner from side to side as in our cabinet drawers.
Many persons may remember the introduction
of Japan varnish into this country, which originated
a new trade called " Japanners," whose business it
was to varnish tea-trays and other metal-work,
and dry the articles in an oven. Of course that is
not the method used in varnishing lacquer-work
so beautifully, for the heat would destroy the
cabinet work. While the one is a rapid process,
the other is extremely slow. The varnish, which
is the resinous produce of a shrub called iinisi no ki,
or " varnish paint/' requires a tedious preparation
to fit it for use. It is tinted by slow and long-
continued rubbing on a plate of copper with the
colouring material, and the operation of lacquering
is as tedious as its preliminaries. Five different
coats, at least, are successively applied, suffered to
dry, and then ground down with a fine stone ; and
it is only by this patient labour that the varnish
acquires its excellence. The brilliant mother-of-
pearl figures consist of layers of shell, cut and

LACQUER-WARE AND PORCELAIN. i8i

fashioned to the shape required, and coloured at
the back ; then laid into the varnish, and subjected
to the same coating and grinding process as the
rest, whence they derive their glittering splendour.
In the exports of Japanese manufactures to Europe
lacquer-ware forms the bulkiest item, but porcelain
exceeds it in value.

Those who have examined Chinese and Japanese
porcelain ware superficially, may have concluded
that there is not much difference between the two
kinds. This is so far true, that, like most other
things, as already stated, the latter is derived from
the former, and is imbedded in the principal.
But it will be seen by comparing the vases of each,
how graceful in form and finish those of Japan are
compared with their prototypes from China, which
are comparatively clumsy and inelegant. As to
the figures of men and women, painted on them,
they are much on a par in artistic design ; but the
birds_, fish, insects, and flowers, of the former are
generally true to nature, but the latter are not.
Another difference in the subjects will be observed
that animals, such as tigers, lions, bears, boars, and
other figures are frequently seen on Chinese pottery,
but rarely, if ever, on Japanese.^-s That arises from
the fact that there are few such creatures in Japan,
while they are found in the mountain regions in

1 82 JAPAN.

the northern and western provinces of China
abundantly.

Japanese porcelain has constituted, for several
centuries, one of the most important articles of
export to Europe ; where, on account of its excel-
lence, it immediately excited the admiration of
connoisseurs, and to the present day it is considered
among the most beautiful objects of Oriental art.
The chief porcelain manufactories for the finest
ware are in the province of Fizen, in the Island of
Kiusiu, and especially in the department of Mat-
shura, near the hamlet of Uresino, where the mate-
rial from which it is made is found in abundance.
Although the clay is naturally fine and clean, it is
necessary to knead it, to wash it, and cleanse it,
before it will have the degree of purity required to
render the porcelain translucent. At another place
in the same province, the material is found in the
hills close to the seaport town of Imari ; on the
slopes of Idsumi-yama, of which more than forty
different kinds of porcelain are manufactured. This
kind of material is hard, and when mixed with the
soft clay, it prevents the fabric from cracking or
breaking in the oven, when being baked. Before
this the patterns are painted with fine brushes on
the ware ; the fire is then kept up for fixing them,
which soon dries the earth spread over the outside

MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN. 183

of the oven. Articles designated Yen-giii^ such as
cups, saucers, plates, and dishes of every kind,
which are in common use among all classes, and
constitute nine-tenths of the porcelain manufacture,
are made by hand, and turned on the lathe. The
cups and saucers, when painted inside and outside
with circular lines, are placed on the disc, turned
round, and the paint-brush thus forms the circle;
then they receive two coatings of glaze, are well
dried, and placed in the oven, where they are baked
a second time.

There are other localities engaged In this industry,
which obtain the raw material for manufacturing
porcelain from Kiusiu, and have come into note,
since the Japanese exported so largely to the in-
ternational exhibitions in Europe. Of these the
now well-known Satsuma ware has obtained pre-
eminence. It is of a rich light cream colour, bearing
tasteful designs of flowers, birds, insects, and other
natural objects. Sometimes it is manufactured Into
elegant chimney ornaments and graceful vases, in
Imitation of a bamboo-stalk and the like : but the
foreigners prefer tea and coffee services, card-
baskets, and other European designs, which
restricts native genius In the art. Near the ancient
capital of Kioto there Is a similar description of
ware manufactured, but of inferior quality. Of all

1 84 "JAPAN.

these tiny productions, that of egg-shell tea-cups
as thin as their name indicates, but sometimes
strengthened by delicate bamboo work, is prized
highly by connoisseurs. It is said not to be a
Japanese invention, but copied from the Chinese
manufacture many centuries ago.

Metallic art in Japan is inferior to the manufac-
ture of porcelain. Nevertheless, the bronze and
iron castings are superior to those of China. As
already mentioned, some of the bronze images of
Buddha, are of gigantic proportions, attaining the
height of thirty to sixty feet ; yet the drapery of
the recumbent figure and the repose of the coun-
tenance display much artistic skill in the design.
These colossal bronzes have been cast in many
pieces, and soldered together so skilfully that
the joinings are not visible outside, conveying
thereby an idea of immense solidity in harmony
with the idol. „ Numerous smaller bronzes de-
corate the interior of these huge images, repre-
senting the subsidiary deities of the Buddhist
creed, and in some temples they are seen in
thousands surrounding the central idol, some of
them being statuettes of clay preserved from the
earliest times. From the appearance of the last-
named images, and the general characteristics of
the creed and its history, which they are designed

f

BRONZE AND IRON CASTINGS. 185

to illustrate, these sculptures cannot be attributed
to pure Japanese art. Similar examples exist in
India, from whence the creed came, and it is just
possible that Indian artists were imported to design
and have them cast by native workmen, on their
first introduction. In the same manner the archi-
tecture of the temples is after the Indo-Chinese
style. One of the best examples is the Buddhist
temple at Kawasaki, as represented in the illustra-
tion.

Iron castings are numerous, many of them after
the style of porcelain vases, such as large plates,
used for sacrificial fires in temples, but none for
grates, as fires are not used in houses for warmth,
and cooking-stoves are made of brickwork. As
already mentioned, immense bells of iron are cast
and used outside the temples on festive occasions.
These bells have no metallic tongues, but are
sounded by striking them externally by heavy
blocks of timber. Many are remarkable for the
beauty of the bas-i^eliefs which adorn them, and the
ancient inscriptions recording the date of their
manufacture. But even these works of metallic art
can scarcely be ascribed to pure Japanese invention
and design. They are copied from bells cast in
China, although varied in their embellishments.
In like manner enamelling on metals is copied from

1 86 japan:

the Chinese, but more exquisitely inlaid on vases,
ornaments, and buckles. As to the art of sculpture
as practised by European artists, it is unknown in
Japan ; and the same may be said of architecture,
for the finest edifices are the temples, copied from
Indian designs or Chinese scroll-work.

Carvings on wood are tolerably well executed in
design and workmanship, but the greatest excel-
lence in this branch of art are the carvings in ivory.
Here the Japanese have discarded those of China
for models, as being stiff, artificial, and unmeaning.
Like their minor drawings, they returned to nature
as the true instructress. Without going into details
we may instance one example in our possession, as
illustrating this remark. It represents a smooth
kind of cockle-shell two inches long, one and a
quarter wide, and three-quarters deep. On the tip
is a tiny half-bivalve on the top with a diminutive
crab perched in it, and below is another small shell
whole. Outside they are stained of a brown tint,
and white within, the large shell being " half open.
Looking into this cavity with a magnifying glass, a
minute carving is seen of a sea-port town, with
thatched houses of different sizes, surrounded by
trees, and in the distance two hills, with the peak
of Fusiyama beyond. Besides these exquisite
designs there are others of a grotesque character,

CARVINGS IN WOOD AND IVORY. 187

forming figures of queer-looking people, with dis-
torted bodies and limbs. These are generally used as
personal ornaments, hanging to the small Japanese
pipe and tobacco pouch, forming, as it were, an
article of jewellery when attached to an enamelled
girdle-clasp. The country produces precious stones,
but the skill of the lapidary is unknown ; and
hence they do not know how to cut and polish
them. Neither is gold or silver worked up into
rings, earrings, brooches, and other personal orna-
ments. But the manner in which these are worked
into boxes, girdle-clasps, dagger and sword hilts,
displays much taste and skill ; while the blades of
the swords, daggers, and spears, are of the finest
tempered steel, and polished to a razor-edge.

In place of jewellery to be worn by the wealthy
and great, the embroidery on silk and satin gar-
ments, worn by both sexes, in the most brilliant
colours on black grounds, has sufficed to gratify
their vanity, with the addition to ladies' coiffure of
numerous large hair-pins. The manufacture and
production of silk forms one of the principal busi-
nesses in Japan ; and a silk mercer's shop in Tokio
is a sight for the foreign visitor to see. In the
largest of these the whole of the lower story, open
to the street, looks like a hall fifty or sixty yards
long by twenty in breadth, intersected with

1 88 JAPAy.

counters nicely matted, surrounded by shelves and
drawers containing goods. Following attentive
shopmen to the upper story the customers are
shown to a seat on a low divan covered with red
cloth, where boys bring them tea and pipes. While
sipping the tea, the whole floor becomes strewed
with silk crapes and embroidery of every descrip-
tion of texture, shade of colour, and brilliancy of
pattern. Some of the silks and gauzes are of so
stiff a texture that they stand out like pasteboard.
This was formerly the fabric for making the bosoms
of men's dresses, which is now going out of fashion.
It stuck out like wings at the shoulders, and was
adapted to contain articles like a large pocket.
Sometimes it had a portable writing apparatus
with a quantity of paper, a tobacco-pipe and pouch,
a large supply of paper nose-wipers, or handker-
chiefs, thrown away when used, to which presents
would be added, and carried in this capacious
receptacle, without inconveniencing the person.
As a rule, the Japanese dresses on ordinary occa-
sions are rather sombre, it is only when in gala
dress that they are showy.

Silk is more or less produced in almost every
province of the main island, north and east of
Osaka, but the four districts in which it is culti-
vated in the greatest abundance are Oshui, Joshui,

PRODUCTION OF SILK AND TEA. 189

Koshui, and Sinshui. Oshui produces the largest
quantity, but the silk does not equal in quality
and fineness of size, that of the other districts.
Joshui and Sinshui, are noted for the fine size of
their silks, which fetches the highest prices in the
London market ; but the greater part of them are
sold on the continent, as being better reeled than
any other silk from the east. During the failure
of the silk crops in Italy and other continental
states, through the deterioration of the silk-worm,
eggs were imported in very large quantities from
Japan, which improved the culture.

Tea is still more important than silk, and Its
cultivation and manufacture employ a consider-
ably greater number of people. The tea-plant
was introduced from China into Japan about the
beginning of the ninth century, by a Buddhist bonze
named Yeitsin, who presented the first cup of tea
to Saga, the reigning Mikado, who patronized the
cultivation of the shrub. Since then its use has
become universal, and the home consumption is now
so great, that there Is not much left for exporta-
tion. So genial are the climate and soil of some
districts for its growth that the plant grows wild,
while it forms hedges in gardens. Tea is produced
throughout the greater part of Nippon, and in all
the provinces of Kiusiu. The finest qualities

193 JAPAN.

come from Yamu Siro ; but the two largest pro-
ducing districts are Isay and Owari. Suringo,
Simosa, and Koshui are the provinces which
supply the Yokohama market with the earliest
new teas.

Tea of the finer qualities requires especial care in
the cultivation. The plantations are situated re-
mote from the habitations of man, and as much as
possible from all other crops ; lest the delicacy of
the tea should suffer from smoke, impurity, or
emanations of any kind. Manure of a special kind
is applied to the roots, consisting of dried fish,
like anchovies, and a liquor expressed from mus-
tard-seed. No trees surround the plantations, for
they must enjoy the unobstructed beams of the
morning sun, and the plants thrive best upon well-
watered hill-sides. The plant is pollarded to render
it more branchy, and, therefore, more productive,
and must be five years old before the leaves are
gathered. The process of harvesting the leaves, or
rather of storing the tea harvest, is one of extreme
nicety. The leaves for the finer and the coarser
teas are sorted as they are plucked ; and no more
of a kind are gathered in a day than can be dried
before night. There are two modes of drying,
called the dry and the wet process. In the
one the leaves are at once roasted in an iron

PAPER MANUFACTURE. 191

pan, then thrown upon a mat, and rolled by the
hand. During the whole operation, which is re-
peated five or six times, or till the leaves are
quite dry, a yellow juice exudes. That is called
the dry preparation. In the wet process, the leaves
are first placed in a vessel over the steam of boil-
ing water, where they remain till they are withered ;
they are then rolled by hand, and dried in the iron
roasting-pan. When thus prepared, less of the
yellow juice exuding, the leaves retain a brighter
green colour and more of fine flavour. When fresh
dried, the tea is delicately susceptible of odours,
and requires to be carefully guarded from their
influence. The finest qualities are packed in jars,
in order to retain their aroma.

Paper manufacture in Japan holds a high posi-
tion among the industries, in consequence of its
unrivalled qualities for toughness, and the many
uses to which it can be put. Not only is it used
for writing and printing on, but we have noted
that handkerchiefs are made of it ; waterproofs
and umbrellas of oiled paper, are impervious to
the wet ; windows have translucent paper-panes ;
then come paper screens, fans, straps, belts, tobacco-
pouches^ pipe-cases, boxes of all kinds ; even ar-
mour is sometimes made of paper mdche, also
trays of all kinds, and the soft qualities are exten-

192 JAPAN.

sively used for covering open sores and wounds.
From this it will be seen that paper in its various
forms among the Japanese takes the place of some
leather^ hemp, and cotton fabrics with us. Indeed
a sheet of nose-wiping paper is quite as tough as
any common calico ; and in some shops Japanese
curtains may be seen, of attractive patterns, which
are only made of paper. Moreover, these and
other articles of furnishing and clothing, can be
sold fDr less than one-fourth of ordinary cotton
fabrics. We all know that cotton and linen rags,
and several kinds of grasses enter into the pulp of
European paper, but that of Japan has nothing
of the sort. It is manufactured from the pulp of
an indigenous tree ; which it would be well that
our paper manufacturers introduced into Europe.

This paper-making tree is named Kaji by the
Japanese, and classed by foreign botanists as
Broussojietia papyrifera. From a strong, branched,
woody root, rises a straight, thick, equal trunk,
very much branched out ; covered with a fat, firm,
clammy, chesnut-coloured bark, rough without,
and smooth on the inside, where it adheres to the
wood, which is loose and brittle, with a large, moist
pith. The branches and twigs are very plump,
and covered with a small down, or wool, of a green
colour, inclining to purple. Every year, when the

PAPER MANUFACTURE. 193

leaves have fallen off, in the tenth Japanese month
— which answers to our December — the twigs are
cut into lengths, not exceeding three feet, and put
together in bundles, to be afterwards boiled in an
alkaline lye. These faggots are placed upright in
a large kettle, which must be well covered, and
boiled until the bark shrinks so far as to allow
about half an inch of the wood to appear naked at
the top ; when they have been sufficiently boiled
they are taken out into the air to cool, after this
the bark is stripped from the wood, which forms
the pulp for making the paper. For this purpose
it has to be washed and cleansed, and this process
is of no small consequence, in producing smooth,
white paper. The washing takes place in a run-
ning stream, the bark being placed in a sort of
sieve, which lets the water run through, while it
is stirred constantly with the hands until it becomes
a soft woolly pulp. Having been sufficiently
washed, the pulp is spread upon a thick wooden
table, and beaten with a wooden mallet until it is
sufficiently fine. Then it is put into a narrow tub
with a slimy infusion of rice and of a root called
oreni. The moulds on which the paper is to be
made, are formed of the stems of bulrushes cut
into narrow strips. The sheets are then lifted one
by one from the mould, and laid up in heaps upon

o

i94 ^APAN.

a table covered with a double mat, and a small
plank or board placed on each heap. Weights
are gradually placed thereon for a day, when the
sheets are lifted off singly on the palm of the hand
to a rough plank, on which they are placed, and
afterwards dried in the sun. The finest quality is
of a white smooth surface, while the colour of
common sorts is of a yellowish-white.

CHAPTER IX.

PRODUCE AND TRADE.

There are few countries in the world that can
equal the Isles of Japan in their varied products,
and abundant resources for the maintenance of the
inhabitants in the necessaries and luxuries of life,
chiefly raised by an industrious population. Proofs
of their self-dependence and comparative freedom
from external supplies are patent to all who have
studied their early annals ; and especially during
the period of more than two centuries of an
enforced isolation from all other nations, excepting
China and Holland. From time immemorial famine
has scarcely ever been known in the land. Gene-
rally speaking the people have been well fed, and
there are few signs of poverty, while the higher classes
have revelled in riches acquired from the produce
of their domains, wielding the incomparable steel
of their weapons to the jingling of gold coins in
their purses, extracted from their mines.

But the great source of the national wealth has

O 2

t^6 JAPAN.

Sprung from agricultural industry ; particularly the
production of rice — the '' staff of life " in eastern
countries — that of Japan being considered the best
produced in Asia. Not only is it the chief food of
the people, but under the feudal system, the
incomes of the Daimios, no matter in what shape
derived, were valued at so many koku of rice. Up
to the period of the abolition of feudalism, the
standard value of a koku of rice was eleven itziboo,
which was reckoned equivalent to fifteen shillings
in English money. As already shown, the revenue
of the wealthiest noble exceeded a million kokii,
and none w^ere below ten thousand, forming an
oligarchy of 285 nobles, with an average of 200,(X)0
kokti^ of rice per annum — each being equal to
about 5i English bushels.

Although agriculture in Japan does not hold so
high a rank in the body politic as in China, where
the emperor annually holds the plough in a rice-
field, thereby giving dignity to the industry, never-
theless farmers are held in good reputation, and
form prosperous sections of the communities in
which their farms are situated. As in all other
countries, the composition of the soil varies greatly
in the different districts, according to the geological
formation and climate. In the island of Kiusiu,
and in Sikok, being the warmest southerly

AGRICULTURE AND SOILS. 197

provinces, the upper sides of the hills are generally
barren, with rocks of clay-slate and granite pro-
truding. On the lower sides of the hills and
valleys, where cultivation — chiefly rice — is carried
on, the soil consists of clay and sand, mixed with
vegetable matter. On the south side of the main
island of Nippon, the hills are formed of sandstone,
while the valleys and plains consist of sandy soil.
It is not until within view of Fusiyama, that the
dark, rich soil of the volcanic regions first appears.
Then it spreads to the eastward and the north
forming a soil of a blackish-brown colour, and
composed chiefly of vegetable matter. This kind
of soil is not confined to the low valleys, but is also
met with on the tops of the hills, and up the sides
of high mountains. Hence the Chinese system of
cultivating these by terraces has been adopted.
Where cattle cannot draw the plough, men take
their place, or substitute manual husbandry. As
a rule the latter operation forms the principal kind
of labour, in which females largely assist. Accord-
ing to the census of 1872, out of the farming
population computed at 14,870,426, the females —
women and girls — were estimated at 6,866,412.

Rice being the staple produce, the seasons for
sowing, growing, and reaping are diligently watched
by the farmers, who formerly cultivated the land

198 JAPAN.

under the Daimios, as part of their retainers, but
now farm under the Mikado's Government, paying
an annual tax or rent. The rice-lands generally
lie fallow all the winter, and consequently yield
only one crop in the year. In the last days of
April, or about the first of May, little patches of
ground are prepared in the corners of the fields as
seed-beds for the young plants. Here the seed is
sown thickly, sometimes having been steeped in
liquid manure previously to its being sown. It
vegetates in the wonderfully short time of three
or four days, if the weather be moist and warm —
as it generally is at that season of the year. In
the mean time, while the seed-beds are vegetating
the labourers are busily employed in preparing the
land into which it is to be transplanted. This
operation commences at the beginning of June.
About three inches deep of water then cover the
fields, and the planting goes on with astonishing
rapidity. A labourer takes a lot of plants under
his left arm, and drops them in little bundles over
the inundated soil — knowing almost to a plant
what number will be required. Others, both men
and women, take up the bundles which are thus
thrown down, and the planting commences. The
proper number of plants are selected and planted
in rows, by the hand, in the muddy soil. When

SUMMER AND WINTER CROPS, 199

the hand is drawn up, the water rushes in, carrying
down with it a portion of the soil, and thus the
roots are immediately covered. The planting
season is at its height about midsummer, and is
generally over by the middle of July. By
November the bright green crops are waving in
the breeze, the ears are ripe, and harvest is con-
cluded.

Besides this great summer crop of rice, there are
winter crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans,
onions and potatoes. The three first mentioned
may be considered as the staple winter productions,
which are cultivated on land above the level of
the rice valleys. The wheat and barley are sown
in the end of October or beginning of November ;
these soon vegetate, and cover the hill-sides with
lively green during the winter months. As the
land has been carefully cleaned and prepared
previously, scarcely any further labour is necessary
until the following spring. By the beginning of May
the plants are in full ear, and harvested in June,
the corn being cut with a small reaping-hook.
When housed the heads are struck off by a short
bamboo, and fall through a grating from the straw.
These are then laid on a broad flooring of cement,
hard and smooth,, and the wheat or barley thrashed
out with a flail.

200 JAPAN,

Compared with farms in Europe they are small
in extent, and the homesteads present a very
different appearance from those in England.
Fowls are reared in the farm-yards, but not in
such numbers as with us, as the Japanese prefer
fish for their food. However, fine broods are
selected for cock-fighting, which was a favourite
amusement among the highest class at the Court
of Kioto, as shown in the illustration. They
have no sheep or oxen, except a solitary cow or ox,
and sometimes a pack-horse — but these are only
used as beasts of burden. Pigs may be sometimes
seen, but they are generally kept out of view,
although pork is abundant in the butchers' shops.
Japanese beef is the best to be found in the Far
East, and, since the opening up of the country,
imported cattle from Europe have improved the
breed. As a class, the farming population not
only exceed in number those of any other occupa-
tion, but they are the steadiest portion of the body
politic. All those foreigners who have seen the
farmers and their families, state that they live in
good, comfortable-looking houses, are well-fed, well-
clothed, and appear to be happy and contented.

With such a wealth of grain crops, it is not sur-
prising that the Japanese have directed their
attention to the production of malt liquors and

BREWERIES OF RICE-BEER. 201

spirits. It is asserted by them that the prepara-
tion of fermented hquors was known before the
Christian era. According to their annals, the office
of chief butler to the Mikado was made in the
reign of Syu-zin, whose duty it was to brew
for the royal tables. This malt liquor is made
principally from rice, but barley is also used ;
from which also a spirit is distilled, both being
named saki^ but distinguished according to its
strength. The most authentic account extant of
what foreigners call "rice-beer," being brewed
upon a large scale, of good quality, was towards
the close of the sixteenth century, at the brew-
eries of Itanii and Ikeda, two places about three
miles to the north of Osaka. The brewery at
Itami soon became the most celebrated in Japan
— the Japanese Burton. It supplied the luxurious
wants of the nobles at Kioto and Yedo, and
what could not be conveyed by sea to the capital,
was sent by land on beasts of burden.

The measures of capacity by which the brewer
is guided, are the same for liquids as for grain.
These are computed on the decimal system, the
integer being called masii^ or mas, measuring about
the capacity of an English pint. This is subdivided
until it reaches a dyoku, or millet seed. Then it
increases by tens up to the eighth magnitude.

202 JAPAN.

forming a koktt^ having the capacity of 6446 cubic
feet, or 5.13 bushels. Measures of length are com-
puted from the integer shiakii^ or foot. The
smallest division is the riuy or line^ and the largest
the ri, or Japanese mile. This equals 2.45 English
miles, or 12,960 feet. A degree on the equator
consists of 2 1 .66 ri^ but there is much discrepancy
in its calculation.

Wherever there are mountain ranges, copper,
lead, iron, and not unfrequently gold and silver
ores are to be found. Copper is the most ancient
industry in mining, and the quality of the metal
extracted from the ore is unequalled in the mines
of the world. In former times it formed an im-
portant part in the coinage of the realm. One
coin of an oblong shape called the tempo, equal in
intrinsic value to about three half-pence English,
vied with any other copper coin in Europe. When
the foreign merchants were settled first at the
treaty ports, the value of this coin and copper
generally was so far below the European standard,
in comparison with silver, that it left a large mar-
ginal profit ; consequently the coins were bought
up by the ton, until the Japanese government
stopped the export. In the same manner gold
was bought with silver, at nearly one third its
value, until the authorities found out the foreign

ANCIENT COINS. 203

rates, when its exchange at par was also stopped.
For example, the gold cobang^ on the arrival of the
first foreigners in 1859, was not equivalent to more
than 6s, A^d, English silver, but in a year afterwards
it rose to twenty shillings. Silver being the
scarcer metal, and most in circulation, was coined
into itzebooSy of an oblong-square shape, valued at
about one shilling and sixpence. But the nichou
and its proportions were made of a mixture of
gold and silver. All these pieces were more or
less of an oval form, with the obverse and reverse
marked with Chinese characters of their value^
only one, the tempo, having a square hole in the
centre for stringing. The inferior coins, however,
were exactly of the Chinese pattern, circular, with
characters around a square hole, by which they
were strung, and the lowest value composed of a
mixture of lead and copper, besides iron coins.

In an original Japanese pamphlet of twenty
leaves, entitled Ko Dm Dzu Rokic, there is an
excellent account of smelting copper, and copper-
mines, fourteen of the leaves being illustrated with
engravings which show the workings and process.
From this pamphlet we translate the following para-
graphs : — The copper as it comes from the hills is
in the form of ore, which is considered the effluence
of the metal, and, in a serpentine vein, it rises and

204 JAPAN.

appears on the top of the hill. There are many
sorts of ore ; that which is of a reddish black
colour, soft and not very heavy, and taken from
veins running horizontally is the best. The over-
seer of the mine examines and assorts the ore.
Rafters, planks, joists, pillars, and other appliances
are used to uphold, and prevent the opening of the
mine from caving in. When commencing opera-
tions the rock is worked with hammers and chisels;
the barren stones are thrown away as they are
dug out, and the ore separated. By degrees the
hill is penetrated, and the opening formed is called
a mine. The miners enter with lamps made of a
translucent shell, and the quarried stone, put into
baskets, is carried out on their backs. When the
mine has been dug deep, and the air becomes
foul, there are holes bored from above to make the
fresh wind to circulate. When water bubbles up,
pumps are used. To roast the ore, a kiln is built,
having vent-holes in it, through which the draught
will pass to the fire. When the coarse metal is
melted in the furnace, and the scoria has flowed
off, the copper is taken out. Then it is cast into
bars, and sold to foreigners, or for imperial coinage
purposes. When silver ore is combined with
copper ore, lead is added to the amalgam, and
they are melted together. When put into an

IMPERIAL MINT AT OSAKA. 205

ash-furnace, the lead sinks to the bottom among
the ashes, and the pure silver appears coming out
from the centre.

Like many other improvements in rendering the
resources of Japan more productive under European
management, that of mining has been placed under
the control of foreigners, and a system of coinage
based on the American principle introduced. It
so happened that the government of Hong Kong
had imported from Her Majesty's mint, a com-
plete apparatus for coining dollars and their
fractions, under the superintendence of Major
Kinder, with an efficient staff. Nothing could be
more perfect than the working of the machinery,
and the coins issued from the new mint. But it
turned out that the circulation was insufficient to
cover charges ; while the Chinese preferred the
Mexican to the British dollar, from prejudice and
custom. Under these circumstances the continu-
ance of the mint was abandoned, and the ap-
paratus offered for sale. The Japanese not only
bought the *'' plant," but engaged the superinten-
dent and staff to set it up, and put it into opera-
tion at Osaka. This was speedily and successfully
accompHshed by July, 1871, when coining first
commenced, at the Imperial Mint built in that
citv.

2o6 JAPAN.

Previous to this the ancient gold, silver, and
copper coins were called in for melting and refining ;
and as there were not sufficient appliances in
Japan for that purpose, a large portion was shipped
to San Francisco, where it underwent these opera-
tions, and came back in ingots. Dies were also
prepared by English die-sinkers, who cut designs
after the following pattern furnished by the
Japanese : — The reverse of the coin contains in the
centre a representation of an antique metallic
mirror, symbolical of the rising sun and the
Sintoo doctrines. Above the mirror is a circle,
subdivided into sixteen segments. Below the
mirror is a branch of the kiri tree. On the sides
of the mirror are the Imperial Japanese standards,
one representing the sun and the other the moon.
Around these devices is a wreath, one side com-
posed of kiri leaves and the other of chrysanthe-
mum flowers, which is the Mikado's crest. The
obverse or face of the coin has in the centre the
figure of the fabulous dragon, the emblem of
wisdom and purity, and a symbol of imperial,
power. The Japanese inscriptions on the face of
the coin around the dragon may be translated
" Great Sun Rising," the symbol of Japan, and
" Twelfth Year of Peace and Enlightenment " — the
official designation of the present Mikado's reign.

NEW GOLD, SILVER, AND COPPER COINS. 207

The special name and value of each coin are
given in Japanese and English.

Their denomination in Roman letters is " Yen "
and " Sen," the former being equivalent to a dollar
and the latter a cent. There are five gold coins of
I, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen ; five silver pieces of i yen^ 50,
20, 10, and 5 sen, and four copper coins of 2, i, and
\ sen, and i riii. The old gold coins, such as the
Obaitg, Cobang, Niboo, and Nishiii Ishioo, are no
longer in circulation, nor is the silver Itchiboo. The
old copper coins, however, are still in use, but do
not bear any fixed value as compared with the
gold and silver yen or sen. Besides the native
coinage — the mint being entirely conducted by
Japanese now — there is a new Mexican dollar of
pure silver in circulation, chiefly among foreigners,
which is equivalent to T.0043 y^"- Gold yen as
compared with these are generally at a discount.
The gold and silver yen are not yet generally in
circulation among the Japanese, paper money called
kinsatzu and yensatzii being their principal circu-
lating medium.

Trade in Japan may be divided into external
and internal. With respect to the latter as purely
native traffic, there are no returns extant, to fur-
nish approximate calculations as to its extent and
value. Hence we can only deal with the former,

2o8 JAPAN.

which has nearly all arisen since the opening of
the treaty ports at Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hiogo,
Osaka, Nee-e-gata, and Hakodadi. At these
ports British Consuls are located, who send to
England full reports of all the foreign commerce
and shipping, at each locality, which are pre-
sented annually to Parliament. These at first
exhibited wonderful progress and increase, com-
pared with the wretched trade carried on for
more than two centuries by the Dutch at their
prison-factory, of De-sima. This was conspicu-
ous in the foreign shipping, which was limited
in their time to three or four vessels in a year,
when they suddenly swelled into hundreds
laden with all kinds of merchandise, to ex-
change for produce. But this accumulation of
shipping, especially steamers, was inflated by the
purchases of the wealthy Daimios for warlike pur-
poses. When peace came, and the Mikado was
restored to his ancient sovereignty, most of these
vessels were transferred to traders, who formed
themselves into a steam navigation company,
called the Mitsic Bichi, with a fleet of nearly forty
vessels of various tonnage. The consequences
were that the foreign lines, such as the Peninsular
and Oriental Company, trading between Japan and
China, or between native ports, were more or less

TRADE AND SHIPPIXG. 209

superseded in the traffic. This, however, is the
policy of the Japanese merchants, as well as the
government, to become self-dependent after ac-
quiring efficiency from foreign- instruction, and in
trade to hold the motto of " Japan for the Japanese."
It is not necessary to enter into details regarding
the external trade, which is divided into imports
and exports. Suffice it to say, that the former
comprise cotton piece-goods, such as grey and
white shirtings, brocades, velvets, and other
fabrics, besides cotton yarns, woollens and woollen
mixtures, metals, including iron, lead, and tin-
plates. Most of this merchandise is imported from
England, and brought in British bottoms. It is
in Japan, as in China, that the import trade with
Great Britain equals, if it does not exceed, that
with all other foreign countries. It is otherwise,
however, with the exports, which are chiefly con-
fined to silk and tea, as the staple products, though
the shipment of Japanese merchandise has in-
creased considerably. The greater bulk of the
tea goes to ports in the United States, where its
qualities are more appreciated than in the United
Kingdom ; while France has the largest share of
the silk exported, and Italy silkworms' eggs. In
addition to these there are minor exports of bees'-
wax, camphor, sulphur, and other produce con-

P

2IO JAPAN.

sumed in China. Compared with the foreign
trade at the fourteen treaty ports of that great
country, Japanese external commerce in permanent
products and commodities is not much more than
one-fifth in value. The amounts fluctuate from
year to year, and there are many items of import
only temporary. On an average for the best
years, the total value of the exports and imports
is about thirty-three million Mexican dollars, or
about seven millions sterling. This brief account
would be incomplete, without noticing the coal-
mining industry for home consumption. There
is one mine open at Taka-sima near Nagasaki,
but it has not been successful, and though indica-
tions of coal-seams exist elsewhere, it is doubtful
if Japan has a large coal-field.

Japan being essentially a maritime country, the
shipping forms the principal means for the carrying
trade. What may be the extent of the traffic
in native craft there are no data to furnish an
approximate estimate. One thing is certain, that
since the opening up of treaty ports to foreign
shipping it has greatly decreased. Not only has
this competition been in the hands of foreigners,
but the working of some twenty-five or thirty
steamers by the Mitsu Bishi Navigation Company
has considerably reduced the tonnage of foreign

RAILWAYS AND TELEGRAPHS. 211

companies. Before this opposition, the total entries
inwards amounted to more than 300,000 tons, of
which the great part was in British bottoms. Now
that is reduced nearly to one half, but the gross
tonnage fluctuates from year to year. Besides the
traffic in produce and merchandise, there is a large
and increasing item in passenger conveyance.
The Japanese men of business appreciate the
rapidity of journeying by steamers to the different
seaports, and numerous small boats are owned and
navigated by themselves, in preference to uncertain
passages in junks.

In like manner since the introduction of experi-
mental short lines of railway, the trains are patro-
nized by passengers to their full capacity. The first
laid down was from Yokohama to Tokio, eighteen
miles in length, which has succeeded admirably,
and furnishes an annual surplus revenue to the
government. A second line of twenty miles is in
operation between Hiogo and Osaka, and though it
has to compete with steam-boat traffic, promises to
be a remunerative undertaking. From the latter
city this line has recently been extended to a place
called Saikio, to be continued to the ancient capital
of Kioto, a distance of twenty-five miles. When
finished this will be constructed by way of the
picturesque shores of Biwa Lake, to Tsurugai, a

P 2

212 JAPAN.

fine town and harbour on the west coast, about fifty
miles from Kioto.

Before railways were commenced telegraph wires
were erected, and have been extending ever since,
between the principal seaports and cities. Starting
from Hiogo as a central station, the main line goes
to Osaka, Kioto, Hikone, Nagoye, Toyohashi,
Shizuoko, Numazu, Yokohama, and Tokio. From
Hiogo it proceeds in the opposite direction, along
the shores of the Inland Sea, to Simonosaki, and
onwards to Nagasaki^ where it is in communica-
tion with the submarine cables on to Europe.

Besides introducing these, the government has
established a regular postal service, after the foreign
system for internal and external use_, with rates of
postage on a scale similar to our own. Through-
out the country letters are conveyed at a uniform
rate of 2 seti per niomine, or \d. per \ ounce. Post-
age stamps are issued for i, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, and
30 seiiy and i ye7i or dollar, for the transmission of
letters and newspapers abroad. From these faci-
lities in conducting correspondence and commerce,
the Japanese are becoming so familiar with their
advantages that all classes appreciate their intro-
duction.

CHAPTER X.

SCIENCES — FAUNA— FLORA, ETC.

Hitherto the only sciences that can be said to
have been cultivated by the Japanese were astro-
nomy and medicine. In the former the proficiency
of zealous students has been greater than that of
their neighbours of the so-called " Celestial Empire,"
which may be attributed to there being no super-
stitious impediments in the way of progress in this
science. Through the Dutch factory at De-sima
they obtained and studied the most profound works
on astronomy translated into that language, and
became proficient in the use of astronomical instru-
ments imported from Europe. Not only that, but
by native ingenuity their artisans succeeded in
making good telescopes, barometers, and thermo-
meters. By these means the Japanese astronomers
were able to calculate eclipses at the observatories
of Kioto and Yedo, and constructed their own
almanacs, which were formerly imported from
China. Since the opening of the country to

214

yAFAjsr.

foreigners, almanacs, like so many other things,
have undergone a change ; but here we have to
deal with the purely native system of the measure-
ment and division of time.

According to the simplest interpretation these
are peculiar, and not very easy to be understood by
foreigners. For chronological purposes, cycles are
employed. Of these there are three, unconnected
and concurrent. The one is formed by a some-
what complicated blending of astronomy with other
branches of natural philosophy ; the remaining two
are simple, and may therefore be mentioned. The
cycle habitually used in history for dates is the
nengo. This is a period of arbitrary and therefore
ever-varying length, from one year to any number
of years. It is regulated by the pleasure of the
reigning Mikado, according to any remarkable or
accidental occurrence that he thinks worthy of such
commemoration. For instance, he may appoint a
new nengo to begin from the building of a temple,
from an earthquake^ or in occupying Yedo and nam-
ing it Tokio, his " Eastern Capital.^' In most cases,
however, in olden times, the names of events were
given in the oriental style, metaphorically, allegori-
cally, and enigmatically. Thus the present Mikado
ordered a new neiigo to commence with his restora-
tion to the throne of his ancestors in 1868, and it

CYCLES OF SIXTY YEARS. 215

was designated the " First Year of Peace and En-
lightenment." This is the most simple mode of
computation, by the reign or dai of every suc-
cessive Mikado^ and the one in common use by the
people as well as the government.

The astronomical cycle of sixty years is a com-
plex affair, being constructed by calculation out of
the signs of the zodiac and the elements. The
former are reckoned in Japan as twelve, and differ
from ours only in their names, which it is not
necessary to give. The elements of the Japanese
reckoning are more original. They are held to be
five in number, excluding air, and including wood
and metal as elementary substances. But these
five are whimsically doubled, by taking each in a
twofold character — separately as one in their natural
state, and another as adapted by man to his own
use, yet in each an element. Then these ten ele-
ments are combined in some complicated way with
the twelve signs of the zodiac, and sixty compound
figures are obtained, each of which stands for a year
in this extraordinary astronomical cycle.

Following Chinese precedents, the Japanese
astronomers divided the year into twelve lunar
months, but containing more than 336 days, because
the Mikado added a couple of days to several
of the months, announcing always in the almanac

2l6

JAPAN.

of the year how many and which of the months
had been thus increased. That system has now

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JAPANESE ALMANACK.

been superseded by the introduction of calendar
months ; so that the new year in Japan happens on
the 1st of January, where formerly it occurred in

DAILY DIVISION OF TIME. 217

the middle of our February, and does so still in
China. Moreover, the annual chronology, besides
that of the Mikado's reign is computed from the
period of Zinmoo, the founder of his dynasty ;
consequently this year, 1880 of the Christian era,
is 2540 of Jimmo, as it is familiarly pronounced.

But perhaps the most whimsical computation
of time under the obsolete system, and certainly
the most inconvenient, was the division of the day
into hours. A natural day and night was divided
into twelve hours, each double that of our own, of
which six were allotted to the day and six to the
night ; but these divisions were fixed by the rising
and setting of the sun. Thus the hours were con-
stantly varying in length, except at the equinoxes,
when day and night are equal. In the Japanese
computation the hours of the day expanded in
summer and those of the night contracted, while
in winter the opposite phenomena existed. How
they managed with routine duties we have no means
of knowing, and the Japanese seem ashamed of the
erratic time of early days. At night in the cities
the hours were announced by the watchmen in
going their rounds, as shown in the illustration.
These men were of the Dogberry kind, who were
feeble in suppressing the lawless ronms, or robbers.
Now the police is disciplined after the foreign

2i8 JAPAN.

model, life and property is safer in the towns
than before. In the treaty ports, European time
rules all business transactions ; and the Japanese
traders are getting into recognizing Sundays, as
business is then suspended by foreigners.

Medical science has been studied by the Japanese
from the earliest times, and, contrary to so many
ar"ts and sciences copied from the Chinese, there
are data to show that some of their best remedies
for curing disease came from Japan. The drugs
employed in the Japanese pharmacy are mostly
animal and vegetable, chemistry being far too
superficially and imperfectly known to allow phy-
sicians to venture upon mineral remedies. But
botany as connected with the knowledge of simples
has always been diligently cultivated, and the
medicines used are said to be generally beneficial.
At the best, however, European doctors consider
the medical practice in Japan as bordering on
quackery. Simples are administered to the patient
with sententious advice regarding diet, and super-
stition is called in to act on the mind of the patients.
As to a knowledge of the human frame by studying
anatomy, that was unknown until the country be-
came open to foreigners, and students were sent to
attend the medical colleges in Europe. In this
branch of science, the Japanese Government have

FAUNA AND FLORA. 219

called in the aid of German professors, and the
number of medical students is on the in-
crease.

When we consider the exquisite drawings and
carvings of Japanese artists in so faithfully copying
nature, which could only have been obtained by
diligent study of the living objects, one would infer
that they had some descriptive details, and arrange-
ments for classifying them. As far as we know,
there do not exist any works of the kind, although
illustrated publications of individual specimens are
numerous. Hence in treating of the fauna and
flora of Japan in an intelligible and scientific man-
ner, our sources of information can only be derived
from foreign travellers and men of science who have
visited these interesting localities on land and sea,
which are inexhaustible in every object of natural
history. However, the knowledge of the Japanese
is not altogether to be set aside, for if they have
no theoretical classification and names for plants
and animals, they have practical uses and descrip-
tions of them, for gardeners, breeders, and fishermen.
But this applies more to the labouring people than
the learned, who seem to pass over the beauties of
what may be seen in the wild woods, rivers, and
seas ; and it is noticeable that among the foreign
professors inducted in the new colleges, there are

220 JAPAN.

none for teaching botany, geology, or physical
geography, including meteorology.

The last-named subject leads us to consider the
range of latitude in the islands of Japan, as affect-
ing the climate and indigenous productions of the
land and water. In round numbers the range is
from 30° to 46°, equal to sixteen degrees of latitude,
in the higher circle of the temperate zone, border-
ing on the Tropic of Cancer, and forming an arc of
the meridian measuring about iioo miles. The
principal line of longitude extends through fourteen
degrees, between the latitudes of 34° and 36°
These ranges, if traced on the adjacent continent
some distance from the coast, give extreme climates
of heat in summer, and cold in winter. But being
surrounded on all sides by the sea, the usual result
follows of a more equable temperature throughout
the year — as it is in the British Isles compared with
similar latitudes on the Continent.

It being well known that the climate of our own
islands is tempered in winter, not only by the sur-
rounding mild watery medium, but by the still more
potent influence of the warm Mexican Gulf Stream
in its current across the Atlantic, it is interesting
therefore to know that there is a Japanese Gulf
Stream, but on a smaller scale, having a similar
effect on the climate. This current rises in the

RANGE OF CLIMATE. 221

tropical latitudes of the China Sea, and sweeps
along in a north-easterly direction, washing the
whole south-eastern coast of Japan as far as the
Tsugar Strait, at the average velocity of forty miles
a day, increasing in strength as it advances, to twice
that rate. On each side of it there are cold strata
of water, analogous to the Atlantic current ; and
what is still more so, there is also a seaweed float-
ing in it similar to that of the Gulf Stream. The
Japanese name it the Kttro Siivo, or *^ Black
Stream," from its dark appearance compared with
the surrounding waters of the Pacific.

Notwithstanding this current, moderating the
winter temperature on the island of Nippon, as it
does not reach the northern shores of Yezo that
island is subject to long and rigorous winters, when
the thermometer falls below zero of Fahrenheit,
though between the comparatively low latitudes of
42° and 46° Mr. Consul Hodgson, who was stationed
at Hakodadi, considers that the summer there is not
warmer than that which occurs in Edinburgh, lying
on the border of 56° north latitude. This he attri-
butes to the prevailing winds during the seven cold
months coming from a northerly direction, over
the ice-fields of Siberia, and the mainland of Tar-
tary. In the few milder months, when the wind
changes to the south, the snow and ice disappear.

222 JAPAN.

and there is a copious rainfall, like tropical
showers.

On the other hand, in the southern latitudes the
thermometer at Nagasaki reaches 96° in the shade
during August and September, with a humid at-
mosphere, brought by the south-west monsoon, that
renders physical existence uncomfortable while it
lasts. During the remainder of the year, however,
the climate becomes salubrious ; while in the middle
of winter snow seldom falls except on the moun-
tains, and if it does on the lowlands, the sun soon
dispels the frost.

But it is on the m.ainland, or Isle of Nippon, that
the most delightful temperature prevails during all
the seasons, both for man and beast. This genial
region comprises all the chief cities and open ports
of greatest note. There the heat of the summer
months is tempered by sea breezes so as to be en-
durable ; while the cold of midwinter has a bracing
effect upon the constitutions of both natives and
foreigners. The latter enjoy such excellent health
compared with residents in China, that it is con-
sidered as a sanatorium for invalids, especially from
Shanghai, who become speedily convalescent in
its pure and invigorating atmosphere. From tables
of temperature registered at Yokohama and Tokio,
the thermometer rarely falls below 20° Fahr., or

SA L UBRIO US MIDDLE LA TITUDES. 223

rises above 90°, the averages ruling between 40°
and 75° while snowy days are reduced to the mini-
mum of five or six. Under these circumstances,
where the air is salubrious, the soil fertile, food
abundant, and sanitary means attended to, the
longevity of the Japanese is a well-established fact,
and the fecundity of females above the average of
other races. As far as we know they are subject
to few diseases, being generally a cleanly people
compared with the Chinese, and temperate com-
pared to Europeans, while opium, the bane of the
East, is never used, and is, indeed, prohibited by
the new government.

While man enjoys perfect health in that luxu-
riant clime, the vegetable kingdom flourishes
as vigorously as in the most favoured lands in
Europe ; and it is interesting to European visitors
to find abundance of trees, shrubs, and lowly
plants, that will remind him of his mother country,
besides others of indigenous growth and tropical
beauty. Firs and cypresses are the most common
trees in the forests and woodlands, but there is a
greater variety of species than with us. Mr. For-
tune, the famous botanist, who visited Japan, pic-
tures and describes the Koya Maki, or " umbrella
pine," as a tree of great beauty and interest, in
many instances fully 100 feet in height. It has

224 JAPAN.

broad, whorled leaves of a deep green colour, each
arranged somewhat like a parasol. In general out-
line it is of a conical form, not spreading, and the
branches and leaves are so dense that the stem is
completely hidden from view. Another beautiful
tree is the Asnero, or Thiijopsis dolabratd of bota-
nists, being straight, symmetrical, attaining the
height of 100 feet, and having leaves of a fine
dark-green colour. They are imbricated, or overlap
each other on the stems, and look almost as if they
had been plaited. Beneath they are of a silvery
hue, which gives them a somewhat remarkable
appearance when blown about by the wind.
Cedars of great size and beauty are very frequently
to be seen, some of the trunks measuring eighteen
feet in girth, and towering up to 200 feet. But the
most curious and venerable is the camphor-tree,
which has a trunk often fifty feet in circumference,
and attains the age of 150 years, bearing black
and purple berries pleasant to the sight. Camphor
is extracted from the stem and roots, cut into
small pieces, by a simple process of decoction.

There are two species of oak-trees, which flourish
luxuriantly, both of which differ from European
varieties, especially the larger of the two, which
yields acorns of such a size and quality that they
are boiled and eaten by the peasants, who consider

MULBERRY-TREES. 225

them to be palatable and nutritious. Of course in
a great silk-producing country like Japan mulberry-
trees are abundant, and of several varieties, for
feeding the silk-worms ; for fine silk, leaves of
saplings are given to them, and for coarser qualities
those of old trees are used. But there is a species
of mulberry indigenous to the country, which grows
in its wild state with surprising rapidity, and spreads
its branches to a wide extent. Besides furnishing
food for silkworms, the bark is stripped, and used
for making ropes, coarse stuffs for dresses, paper, and
other articles. On account of its great usefulness,
the people transplant the wild saplings and cultivate
them.

Fruit-trees flourish everywhere in great abun-
dance, producing fruit of the most luscious de-
scription, so that the poorest person can eat his
fill at a trifling cost. There are three sorts of fig-
trees — one of which, introduced by the Portuguese,
produces a fruit larger and of better flavour than
any in Europe. The chestnut-tree is still more
plentiful, and the fruit of it excellent. Walnut-
trees flourish, but chiefly in the northern provinces.
In the same latitudes there grow trees called kaja
by the Japanese, producing an oblong nut inclosed
in a pulp, and not unlike in size and shape to the
areca nut. An oil is compressed out of these nuts

Q

2 26 JAPAN.

having a sweet, agreeable taste, resembling that of
sweet almonds. Much use is made of it in flavour-
incr food, and it is commended for medicinal
virtues. Soot produced from the residue of the husks
when burnt, is the chief ingredient of the best and
blackest Japan ink for writing, by making it into
cakes like the so-called Indian ink, which comes
chiefly from China. Another useful nut grows
very plentifully on a tall tree, from which an oil
is extracted, prized for its valuable properties.
Orange-trees grow plentifully in groves, yielding
delicious fruit, and rows of heavily-laden lemon-
trees intersect the gardens in autumn. One small
variety of the latter is prized for its juice, which is
useful for flavouring delicate viands. Plum-trees,
cherry-trees, and the apricot are cultivated ; but the
two first-named are valued chiefly, not for their
fruit, but for their flowers, used in flavouring
scented teas. Gardeners improve them so much
by culture that the flowers become as large as
roses, and in the season when they are in full
blossom, these trees afford a delightful sight about
the public walks, gardens, and temple grounds.
Although the vine is not much grown, yet great
skill is shown in training the branches of some
trees and shrubs, springing to the height of seven
or eight feet from the ground, where they are

USES OF THE BAMBOO. 227

occasionally led out across ponds, and supported
on props, so as to afford a shade and covering
of sometimes 300 feet in circumference.

Of useful plants, the bamboo takes pre-eminence
above all others, both in Japan and China, as the
most serviceable to human necessities and comforts,
from the cradle to the grave. It is indigenous to
the latter country, and may have been so in the
former, where it has always been cultivated or
growing wild in thickets. Although only a member
of the family of reeds and grasses, it attains to
the height of sixty feet, and the quantities of
single canes yielded by a single root is prodigious.
It grows rapidly, changing its materials from a soft
nature to the hardest kind of wood. In its
different stages of growth. It supplies materials for
almost everything, from the framework of their
houses to the sails of their boats. Mats, screens,
partition-walls, and most of the furniture in their
dwellings, besides pipes, walking-sticks, and
personal equipment, are made greatly of it,
including a kind of paper. In short, everywhere,
either upon land or water, few articles are to be seen
into which the material of bamboo does not enter,
or to the utility of which It does not contribute.

All foreign travellers and residents in Japan, from
the earliest times to the present day, unite in

Q 2

228 JAPAN,

declaring that the wild and cultivated flowers of
the country will compare in variety and beauty
with any other in the world within the temperate
zone. Kaempfer, the Dutch doctor, who was him-
self a botanist and florist, remarks on this head : —
'* I think that Japan may vie with most known
countries for Its great variety of beautiful plants
and flowers, wherewith kind nature has most
liberally and curiously adorned its fields, hills,
woods, and forests. Some of these they transplant
into gardens, and Improve by assiduity and culture
to the utmost, and indeed to a surprising degree

of perfection It cannot be denied that the

greater number of beautiful incarnate flowers,
which bear in the proper season, are a surprisingly
curious ornament to the back part of a house.
In some small houses, and inns of less note, where
there is not room enough for a garden or for a
flowering tree, they place In the back window one
or two flower-pots or dwarf trees, or some little
plants,, which will grow easily on pumice or other
porous stone, without earth, provided their roots be
supplied with water."

Amongst shrubs, Mr. P'ortune Informs us that
a species of Weigela is common, and covered with
flowers during the summer months, when it is
really ornamental. Another fine ornamental ever-

CAMELLIA JAPONICA. 229

green bush is the Osmanthus aqiiifolms, belonging
to the olive tribe, which is covered with sweet-
scented white flowers. Among flov\^ering shrubs,
that of the well-known Camellia Japonica excels all
others in its height, its beautiful proportions, its
deep-green shining foliage, with large elegant
flowers, single and double petals, and of pure
white or dark-red colour. There are numerous
varieties of it, the greater part of which have found
their way to this country, while other new varieties
exist in Japan. Indeed, they can scarcely be
called shrubs, for the larger kinds form goodly-
sized trees, growing in the wild woods. Near them
azaleas adorn the hillsides with flowers of many
hues ; especially the Azalea obttcsa, having flowers
of the most dazzling red is peculiarly at home in
these gardens of nature.

Next to the camellia, Lilmm Japonicmn has
become familiar to us, through its first accidental
introduction into Europe. It has a stem from four
to six feet high, with noble flowers six and seven
inches broad, of a pure white, with^a streak of blue.
Our horticulturists know the plant best by the name
of the ''Guernsey Lily," where it was first cultivated
from some chance roots. The story goes that a
merchant vessel from Japan was cast away upon
the shores of the island, upwards of a century and

230 JAPAN.

a half ago. There were a number of flower roots
on board, and among them some of this beautiful
Japan lily. These were washed ashore on the sands
of St. Peter's Port, where they became imbedded,
but when the warm season came, with the sea air
of that isle, so like that of its native clime, some
of the roots grew up, and presented an unknown
blossom to the islanders. At that time Lord
Hatton was Lieutenant-Governor of Guernsey,
with his son the Hon. Charles Hatton, who had a
taste for floriculture. His attention was drawn to
the shipwreck lilies ; and knowing their value, he
had them transplanted, under his own directions;
and when they increased, spare roots were sent to
botanists and florists in England, where it was
greatly admired, and remains so to the present day.
In gardens, herbaceous peonies are common, also
several beautiful kinds of pinks, irises, and nume-
rous other flowers. It is a common remark among
foreigners who visit Japan, that the flowers are
mostly scentless, or inferior in perfume to those in
Europe ; and some have gone so far as to attribute
this to the nature of the soil of the country. How-
ever, Mr. Fortune points out that this is not the
case, from the different fragrant plants he mentions ;
such as honey-suckles, roses, gardenias, peonies,
tuberose, and a hundred other flowers, which are

BOTANY OF SMALL PLANTS LLTTLE KNOWN. 231

quite as fragrant in Japan as elsewhere. Violets
are scentless, but this appears to be the fault of the
species, and not of the soil.

Regarding the smaller and wilder plants, includ-
ing ferns and mosses, there is a wide unexplored
field for the botanists. Lists of genera and
species have been made where upwards of 2000
are named, and collections of dried specimens
brought to Enc;land. In our herbarium we have
some rare and beautiful specimens of ferns, mosses,
and other cryptogamous plants, which the Japanese
pay little attention to. Sir William Hooker, in his
remarks on a collection brought by Mr. Consul
Hodgson, says, "The extensive group of islands
belonging to Japan has been very imperfectly
explored botanically. The plants named and
described are scattered through a variety of publi-
cations, of different countries, and written in a
variety of languages. This renders it no easy task
to form such a catalogue from them as shall give
an idea of the general nature of the vegetation.
Neither is it an encouragement to many travellers
and residents in Japan to form collections of well-
dried specimens, which could not fail to be very
valuable to European herbaria, and would be sure
to be turned to good account in preparing some
more elaborate and practically useful flora."

232 JAPAN.

In like manner our scientific knowledge regard-
ing the fauna of Japan is quite as limited as that
of its flora ; at the same time this applies in both
instances to the smaller objects of natural history.
For example, a tolerably complete list of the
arborescent vegetation, in its wild and cultivated
state, is known, while the numbers and descriptions
of the larger beasts, birds, and fishes, and other
members of the animal kingdom have been fur-
nished by qualified naturalists. Among these
savants, Professor Baron von Siebold ranks highest ;
only that his observations refer more to the northern
districts of Nippon, and the island of Yezo, than
the southern provinces with Kiu-siu and Sikok
Islands. This may be accounted for because the
southern fauna of Japan was previously investigated
by his learned countryman, Dr. Ksempfer, while
attached to the Dutch factory at Nagasaki. Be
that as it may, the researches of both go to prove
that the country is but sparingly provided with
four-footed beasts, wild or tame.

Another characteristic of the Japanese fauna is
the absence of ferocious animals — or rather, its
limitation to the wolf and three species of the Ursus,
or Bear genus, and these almost confined to the
wild jungles of Yezo. Although we have no data
on the point, it may be inferred that before the

FE W FEROCIO US ANIMALS. 233

advent of the Chinese occupation in the south, the
mountain forests were infested by bears and other
ferocious animals. Evidence of this may be found
on the adjacent peninsula of Corea, where tigers,
panthers, and large carnivora exist at the present
day. But the continued clearance of their haunts,
and being hunted to death by the agriculturists, in
time extirpated all these noxious animals, in the
south. Even the bears in the north are not con-
sidered dangerous to man. On the contrary they
furnish excellent food to the Ainos ; and foreign
residents at Hakodadi say that a steak of bear's
flesh is scarcely inferior to a beefsteak.

South of Yezo, occasionally a small bear may be
found called tsiikhio kiima by the Japanese, and
the oho kaini, or wolf, inhabiting the forests on
high mountains ; but the country in general is too
much cultivated and peopled to afford cover to the
wild quadrupeds, and the tame ones are bred only
for draught animals. Consequently there is little
or no extent of pasture-land, for grazing flocks of
sheep and herds of cattle. Moreover, the use of
butchers' meat in former times was interdicted to
the followers of the national religion, so that the
consumption of beef and mutton was restricted to
the few who were exempt from caste. As to the
quality of the former, we can vouch for its excellence,

234 JAPAN.

but the latter is inferior, and both sheep and cattle
are being crossed with European stock ; while the
Japanese progressists enjoy their steak or chop
like Britons. Those who first visited England
mentioned in their journals, with sacred horror, that
the " bloody flesh of animals " was exhibited in the
streets of London.

Horses have been bred from the earliest times,
and no doubt were first introduced by the colonists
from northern China, as their descendants show
evidence of Tartar breed. They are not tall, but
of a middling height, with compact bodies like an
English cob, small heads, and full of mettle. Care
evidently has been taken of the best breed, which
supplied the Daimios of old, and their mounted
retainers clad in armour, with spirited chargers.
The Japanese relate most marvellous stories of the
performances by favourite steeds; while some of the
best sketches of animals we have seen are those of
horses prancing and going through their paces.
There is a breed of ponies, also imported from
China, where they are most abundant in the agri-
cultural provinces. They are small, but like their
progenitors on the continent, are full of fire, and
exhibit wonderful speed in racing short distances.
Swine also have been imported from China, but
they are few in number, and chiefly bred by country

DOGS AND CATS. 235

people near the coast, for the supply of Chinese
junks.

Dogs are abundant everywhere, and curs infest
the towns and cities in greater numbers than in
Europe, as the laws, instead of checking their
increase, protect them from harm. This arose, ac-
cording to the popular account, in consequence of a
Mikado, at the close of our eighteenth century, hav-
ing been born under the zodiacal sign of the " dog
— equivalent to our sign of Aquarius. Formerly
there were hospitals for invalid dogs ; and when
they died, they were buried on eminences. Like
other superstitions, the reforms have expunged this,
and curs are destroyed by the police. However,
the finer breeds are preserved, and held in as much
favour as in England, especially a species of spaniel
very like our own. Cats are common, some of a
peculiarly handsome kind, with large yellow and
black spots on their fur^ and short tails. These
are carried about by the ladies, and nursed like our
lap-dogs. The common sorts are prized as with us'
in catching taneztimi^ or mice, and nezinni, the rat,
which infests the field-crops.

Two kinds of foxes are named by the Japanese,
kitsne and sittitkpen; but foreign naturalists enume-
rate four species. The Caiiis vidpis is similar to
our " Reynard/' and from the traditions related of

336 JAPAN.

him he is quite as cunning in the far east as the
far west. The peasantry believe him to be in league
with all evil spirits or devils, and to be himself
the very incarnation of craft, malice, and wicked-
ness. Nevertheless the fox-hunters are expert in
catching and skinning this animated devil, his
hair being much prized for making reed pencils
for painting and writing. Weasels and ferrets are
found, but not common ; and there are two small
animals of a similar kind, that live under the
thatched roofs of houses, where they become very
tame.

In the forests and large domains the reindeer is
seen, giving life to the landscape, but seldom
hunted by the Japanese sportsmen. As they have
no packs of hounds for the chase of the deer or
the fox, the nobility leave that to ignoble hunters,
who kill their game for profit. There is also the
nora^ or musk deer, which frequents the northern
districts and Yezo with the reindeer ; but these
chiefly fall victims to the barbarous Ainos, who
find food in their flesh, and clothing from their
skins. So it is with the nikiL or chamois, which
may be seen leaping from rock to rock in the
alpine regions cf the great mountain chains ; and
the inosisiy or wild boar, that grubs the roots in
the marshy grounds of the forests.

MARINE FAUNA. 237

Among animals that frequent the rivers, lakes,
and sea coast, are the kawa uso^ or fish otter, and
the rakko, or sea-otter. Seals frequent the rocky
shores, especially in the north, where sometimes the
largest species, known to us as sea-lions and sea-
bears — named by the Japanese asasari — are seen ;
and on the shores of Yezo the asika, or walrus,
scares the bold fisherman with his tusks. Whales
occasionally spout in these boreal seas, but are
rarely captured, from want of the requisite gear to
do so. Water-snakes of large dimensions skim
across some bays, where the fishermen are deterred
from casting their nets. There is also a large
land snake found in the forests, of an ugly black
hue, but it belongs to an innocuous species. As a
rule, therefore, it may be said that Japan enjoys
an immunity from ferocious animals or poisonous
reptiles.

The most important section of the maritime
fauna relates to the number of species and extraor-
dinary abundance of fish caught in the estuaries
and bays. From time immemorial the harvest of
the sea has been so prolific, and still continues,
that fish forms the chief article of animal diet, so
that the Japanese are essentially an ichthyophagous
people. Siebold remarks that "the accounts of
the immense quantities of fish observed by the

238

JAPAN,

early Dutch navigators along the coasts, and espe-
cially at the mouths of the rivers of Yezo Island,
do not seem exaggerated when we compare them
with what modern navigators tell us of certain
kinds of fish, such as salmon, sardines, and her-
rings, in the northern part of the sea of Japan."
They also speak of shoals of fish in the estuaries
impeding navigation, and estimate the quantity
by ships' cargoes. In one year no less than
12,000 koku of salted and cured salmon was
brought from the Isikari alone, the largest river on
the coast of Yezo. The number of species known
as frequenting the coasts, the rivers, and the lakes
of Japan, amounts to about 400. Of these,
salmon, comprising ten varieties, are most valued ;
and though the largest kind is less in size than
European species, yet the quality is equal to the
best. Herring is not so much prized as with us,
but it is caught in great quantity of five different
kinds. Plaice is found in immense shoals on the
coast of Yezo, and mackerel of several species are
abundant during their season. Skate and soles
are the principal flat-fish caught ; and of large
species, the tunny and sturgeon are prized the
most. With regard to the other kinds of fish
enumerated, it is not necessary to inquire ; but it
is interesting to note that turbot, cod, and had-

LARGE CRABS AND SHELL-FISH. 239

dock are conspicuous by their absence from the
list. Japanese cooks are skilled in dressing fish
with native sauces, while epicures prefer eating
the delicate kinds raw, or just as they are cured.

Shell-fish form but a small portion of the
edible products of the sea, the oyster being prized
most, then the mussel and the cockle. Two
species of octopus inhabit the waters, and cuttle-
fish are plentiful. There are likewise lobsters and
cray-fish, with numerous other kinds of Crustacea,
spread over a large geographical area. Of these
are the gigantic sea-crab, and the long-legged crab
discovered by Siebold on the east coast of Japan.
" This monster crab," he states, " of which Engel-
bert Kaempfer figured an arm, and the renowned
Stella also found an arm in the Gulf of Alutora,
in Kamtschatka, sufficient to satisfy a hungry man,
is sometimes found on the coast of Yezo, and it
is affirmed that it attains the length of eight feet.
The largest we ever saw had arms four feet
long."

Birds are not so numerous in species and
flocks, either inland or on the coast, as elsewhere.
Indeed it has been observed by navigators and
travellers that the scarcity of birds, both of sea
and land species, appears singular. Of the latter,
the crow and the pigeon seem to be the most

240

JAPAN.

plentiful, together with the common sparrow. But
it is noticed that nearly all of the feathered tribe
frequenting the Japanese grove, are of the Euro-
pean type. There sings the nightingale, the
cuckoo's double note is heard, the blackbird
warbles, and the lark ascends on high with its
cheerful strain. The starling, wagtail, tomtit, and
the smaller species, frequent the farmsteads, but no
robin is seen with his red breast during the winter
snow. Of large birds, the crane and white heron
are the most prized, and protected from the fowler,
as they are in a measure held sacred. Several
kinds of duck and wild geese are snared for the
market, also the bustard and quail, but not in any
great quantity. Among rapacious birds the falcon
and hawk take the first place inland, while the
fish-eagle and the sea-eagle soar along the coasts.
Gulls and sea-mews waken up the echoes among
the rocks, but they are seldom seen in large
flocks.

The insect creation swarms over all the Japan-
ese isles, especially in southern localities, where,
during the hot summer months, they would seem to
belong rather to a tropical than a temperate clime.
Butterflies and beetles exhibit the most brilliant
colours in their flight over flowers in gardens and
groves ; while the hum and irritation from stinging

WIDE FIELD FOR THE NATURALIST. 241

mosquitoes at night disturb the hours of repose.
At the same time glowworms and fireflies twinkle
among the bushes, and field-crickets sound their
calls merrily. Large field-spiders weave strong
webs from bush to bush, and long centipedes lurk
under stones in damp places. Wild bees build in
the hollow trunks of trees, and wasps with white
spots construct their paper nests on the branches.
These are among the common species, but there
are many more of rarer kinds which entomologists
have not yet described.

Altogether the natural history of Japan presents
a wide, varied, and undeveloped field to the enter-
prising naturalist. Although the Japanese are in-
telligent and close observers of nature so abun-
dantly spread out before them in the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, yet it is more for artistic than
scientific purposes. As already stated, they have
no comprehensive classification of the fauna and
flora, according to their anatomy and habits, nor
in their educational establishments are there any
teachers of natural sciences. Now that foreigners
have been appointed to survey railway lines and
mining districts, this may lead to the teaching of
physical geography in the colleges, and the
appointment of a professor of natural history in
the university of Tokio.

R

242 JAPAN.

To conclude this brief sketch of Japan and the
Japanese, it will be allowed that from what has been
said the following inferences may reasonably
be drawn : — As a branch of the great Mongol
race, they are not so inventive in their capacities
generally as their neighbours the Chinese, from
whom they derived their national polity. It is
manifest, however, that they have improved in
many respects upon their instructors as a practical
progressive people. But still 'these improvements
exhibit more of the imitative faculty than inventive
genius. In like manner, the extraordinary stride
from a state of Oriental despotism to comparative
Occidental freedom, illustrates the predominating
talent for imitation in its political aspect. Once
they had broken down the barriers of exclusiveness,
and entered the comity of nations, they adopted
everything foreign that suited their wants or
fancies — in some instances bordering on the ludi-
crous. Nevertheless, the leaders of the national
revolution and progress, have achieved a lasting
victory over the ancient feudal system. The
anarchy which followed the transition state has
now given way to a reign of law and order, under
the sway of a monarch restored to his legitimate
power, supported by a free and vigorous govern-
ment, which has introduced reformed institutions.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 243

Not only has the change proved beneficial to the
nation at large, but in foreign countries Japanese
ambassadors, consuls, and other officials are held
in the highest respect, while financial and commer-
cial relations are bound by friendly treaties. If the
same peaceful policy be persevered in, the future
of Japan and the Japanese promises to be pro-
sperous.

R 2

INDEX.

Agriculture and soils, 196.

Ainos, indigenous people of Japan,
33 ; characteristics of, 35 ; food
and clothing of, 37 ; domestic
felicity of, 39 ; servile condition
of, 40 ; Japanese treatment of,
41 ; Chinese invade the territory
of, 43 ; dispersion to Yezo of, 45.

Arborescent vegetation rich in
foliage, 224.

Army, formed on the Prussian sys-
tem, 82 ; head-quartei"s of the,
98 ; military schools for the, 99.

Artists, defective drawings of, 176 ;
skill in portraying details by, 178.

Arts derived from the Chinese,

175-
Astronomy, 213.

Bamboo, 227.

Birds, 239.

Biwali Lake, 7-

Botany, 231.

British Fleet bombards Kagosima,

no.
Bronze and iron castings, 184, 185.
Buddhism introduced in the sixth

century^ 146.

Buddhist temples^ 148 ; image at
Kamakura, 149.

Carvings on v>^ood andivoiy excel-
lent, 186.

Cattle and sheep, 233.

Charts of the coasts and harbours, 8.

Chinese, invasion of Japan by, 43 ;
difference between Japanese aiid,
47 ; Japanese language derived
from, 152; arts and manufactures
copied from the, 175 ; porcelain
superior in design to, 182; paper
introduced by, 191.

Chosiu, Kioto attacked by, 78 ; de-
struction of barracks at Yedo of,
79 ; attack on foreign vessels by,
107 ; defeat of, 108.

Christian persecution in the seven-
teenth century, 142.

Chronological system complex, 215.

Climate, north and south extremes
of, 220 ; middle latitudes possess
salubrious, 222.

Coins, ancient gold, silver, and
copper, 203 ; new designs and
issue of, 206; mint at Osaka for
producing new, 207.

IXDEX.

245

Colleges, 128, 130.

Copper mining and smelting, 204.

Current in the sea, like the Gulf
Stream, 221.

Cycles of sixty years, 214; astro-
nomical, 215.

Daimios, number and revenues of,
59 ; new titles given to, 62 ; im-
perial edict abolishing feudal
tenures of, 63 ; compensation for
loss of revenue to, 64 ; ancient
heraldry of, 73 ; disbandment of
retainers of, 75 ; combination
against foreigners of, 105,

Dogs and cats, 235.

Editors of native newspapers
punished, 173.

Education, European systems
adopted for, 1 23 ; message of the
Mikado on, 125 ; scope and
management of national, 127 ; re-
ligious teaching forms no part of,
128.

Embassy to America and Europe in
1871, 67; legations established
by, 68 J arrival in Great Britain
of, 69.

Embroideiy on silk and satin superb,
187.

English language preponderates at
foreign schools, 124.

Fauna and Flora classified by
foreigners, 219 ; species not ex-
tensive, 220 ; flowers of great
beauty, 228 ; deficient in fra-
grance, 23c ; lily of Japan in

Guernsey, 229 ; ferocious animals
few in number, 232 ; foxes of two
species, 235 ; reindeer in northern
forests, 236 ; fishes abound, 237 ;
large crabs and shell fish, 239.

French despatch-boat attacked, 107.

Fniit trees, 225.

Fusiyama, 4.

Generalissimo, or Shiogoon, 76.

Government now based on Euro-
pean principles, 61 ; expenditure
of new, 64 ] revenue in 1876 of,
66 ; treaties made with foreign
powers by, 6^].

Harikari, 85.

Hiogo, city and settlement of, 17.
Historical works, 166,
Horses, 234.

Flours of the day curiously aiTanged,
217.

Imperial dynasty becomes weak in

authority, 56.
Inland Sea, nature and area of, 15;

voyage from west to east through,

16.
Insects, species of, 241.
Iwakura, ?>'^.

Japan, geographical boundaries
of, 2.

Japanese, progi-ess in civilization of,
I ; origin of, variously accounted
for, 32 ; ancient government of,
55; native treatise on dynasty and
country of, 139, 141 ; almanack,
216.

246

INDEX.

\

Japanese language, elements of,
153 ; alphabetic signs of, 153 ;
Chinese characters the basis of,
'54> 155 'y grammar of, 156 ;
numerals of, 159 ; euphonious
sounds of, 160; compound words
in, 161.

KaCxOSIMa, bombardment of, iii.

Kioto, ancient metropolis of, 21 ;
Mikado, formerly resident at, 59.

Kiusiu Island, . volcanic formation
of, 3 ; bay and islets of, 13 ; re-
bellion in, 94 ; suppressed by
disciplined forces, 96 ; cost of the
rebellion in, 97.

Koku of rice, a measure of value,
196.

Lacquer-WARE, varnishing process
of, 180.

Literature, ancient study of, 163 j
Chinese forms the style and
subjects of, 164; anecdote illus-
trative of, 165.

Lunar months changed to calendar,
216.

Measures of capacity, 201.

Medical practice, 218.

Metallic art, 184.

Mikados and Shiogoons formerly

formed a double monarchy, 57.
Mikado Mutrichto, sole reigning

monarch, 59; annual income

voted to, 64.
Military system under Daimios

abolished, 72.
Mint at Osaka, 205.

Missionaries allowed to reside at

Tokio, 143.
Mulberry plantations, 225.
Music and musical instruments, 170.

Nagasaki, fine harbour of, 10 ; city
and settlement of, 11 ; Dutch
factory at, 144.

Navy, foreign steamers nucleus of,
102 ; Higo suggests the plan for,
103; College of cadets for, 113;
dockyards at Yokoska for, 115 ;
formidable ironclads and rams
for, 116; seamen for, 119; train-
ing ship for, 118.

Newspapers first published, 172.

Nobles, assembly of, 89.

Osaka, Gulf of, 19; city and
foreign settlement of, 20.

Paper introduced from China, 191 ;

numerous uses for, 192 ; manu-
facture of, 193.
People, freedom of all classes of,

48 ; politeness characteristic of

the, 49.
Poetry, ancient emperors compose,

168 ; examples of, 169 ; Song of

the Flown Bird, 171.
Porcelain, Kiusiu works in, 182 ;

Satsuma, 183.
Postal services established, 212.
Printing-presses, foreign, 174.
Proverbs and proverbial literature,

167.

Railways introduce
Rebellion in Kiusiu,

II.

I

INDEX.

247

Regent assassinated, 77.

Rice, principal product, 197 ; me-
thod of cultivating, 198 ; saki
brewing from, 201 ; measure of
value in koku of, 196.

Samourai, revolt under Saigo, 90.

Satsuma, leader and clan of, 61 ;

insurrection by Samourai of, 92,

93.

Schools on foreign systems, 122,

124.
Sheep and cattle, 200.
Shiogoons, the last of them deposed,

58.
Shipping, fluctuations in foreign,

210.
Silk, 188.

Simonosaki, Strait of, 13 ; bombard-
ment of, 109.
Sintoo Religion, 131, 133 ; mode

of worship in temples of, 134 ;

lively festivals of, 135, 137;

doctrines and policy of the, 139,

140.

Summers in the south semi-tropical,

222.

Tea culture, carefully attended to,

190.
Telegraph lines established, 212.
Tokio, formerly Yedo, aspect of,

27 ; topographical divisions of,

29 ; railway from Yokohama to,

26.
Trade in imports and exports, 208.

University of Tokio, 131.

Wheat and barley, inferior crops,

199.
Winter rigorous in the northern isles,

39-

Yezo Island, meteorology of, 39.
Yokohama, chief foreign settlement,
^25.
Yoritomo, the first Shiogoon, 56.

ZiNMOO, the first Mikado, 52.

LIST OF BOOKS ON JAPAN CONSULTED
BY THE AUTHOR.

An Account of Japan. By Engelbert Kasmpfer, M.D.
Translated by J. G. Scheuchzer, F.R.S. London, 1850.

Fauna Japonica. By P. F. von Siebold. Translated
by F. M. Cowan. London, 1853.

American Expedition to Japan under Commodore
Perry. By Francis L. Hawks, LL.D. New York, 1856.

The Earl of Elgin's Mission to Japan. By Laurence
Oliphant. Edinburgh and London, 1859.

A Residence at Nagasaki and Hokodate in Japan. By
C. Pemberton Hodgson, H.B.M. Consul. London, 1861.

Visits to Japan and China. By Robert Fortune.
London, 1863.

Japan and the Japanese. Illustrated by A. Humbert.
London, 1864.

City of the Tycoon, Yedo in Japan. By Sir Rutherford
Alcock. London, 1865.

Chinese and Japanese Repository. Edited by Professor
James Summers. London, 1864 — 1866.

Japanese and English Dictionary. By Dr. Hepburn.
Yokohama, 1867.

New Japan ; the Land of the Rising Sun. By Samuel
Mossman. London, 1873.

A Catalogue of American and Foreign Books Published or

Inipoi'ted by Messrs. Sampson Low & Co. can

be had on application.

Crown Buildings, i88, Fleet Street, London ^
April, 1880.

a ^tUrtiou from tbe Sfet of Boofed

PUBLISHED BY

SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON.

ALPHABETICAL LIST.

A CLASSIFIED Educational Catalogue of Works pub-
"^^ lished in Great Britain. Demy 8vo, cloth extra. Second Edition,
revised and corrected to Christmas, 1S79, ^s.

About (yEdmond). See " The Story of an Honest Man."

About Some Fellows. By an Eton Boy, Author of "A Day
of my Life." Cloth limp, square i6mo, 2s. 6d.

Adventures of Captain Alago. A Phoenician's Explorations
1000 years B.C. By Leon Cahun. Numerous Illustrations. Crown
8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, ']s. 6d. ; plainer binding, ^s.

Adventures of a Young JVaturalist. By Lucien Biart, with
117 beautiful Illustrations on Wood. Edited and adapted by Parkkr
GiLLMoRE. Post 8vo, clotli extra, gilt edges, New Edition, 7s. 6d.

Afghan Knife {The). A Novel. By Robert Armitage
Sterndale, Author of " Seonee." Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.

Afghanistaft aiid tJie AfgJians. Being a Brief Review of tlie
History of the Country, and Account of its People. By H. W.
Bellew, C.S.I. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, ds.

Alcott {Louisa M.) Jimmy's Cruise in the " Pinafore.^' With 9
Illustrations. Second Edition. Small post 8vo, cloth gilt, 3J. 6d.

Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag. Square i6mo, 2s. 6d.

(Rose Library, is.)

' Little Men : Life at Plumfield tvith Jos Boys. Small

postSvo, cloth, gilt edges, 3J. 6d. (Rose Library, Dow'ble vol. 2^, )

Little Women . i vol., cloth, gilt edges, $s. 6d. (Rose

Library, 2 vols., is. each.)

A

Sampson Low^ Marsto?t, &= Co.'s

Alcott {Louisa M. ) Old-Fashioned Girl. Best Edition, small
post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, 3^. bd. (Rose Library, 2s. )

Work and Beginjiing Again. A Story of Experience.

Experience, i vol., small post 8vo, cloth extra, 6^. Several Illustra-
tions. (Rose Library, 2 vols., is. each.)

• Shaiv I Straps. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, gilt, 35". dd.

Eight Cousins ; or, the Aunt Hill. Small post 8vo,

with Illustrations, ^s. 6d.
The Rose in Bloo7n. Small post 8vo, cloth extra,

3 J. bd.

Silver Pitchers. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 3^. dd.

Under the Lilacs. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, ^s.

— — Jack and Jill. Small post 8vo, cloth extra, 55.

"Miss Alcott's stories are thoroughly healthy, full of racy fun and humour . . .
exceedingly entertaining .... We can recommend the ' Eight Cousins. "'—
A the>i(B7tt>t.

Alpine Ascents and Adventures ; or, Rock and Snow Sketches.
By H. ScHUTZ Wilson, of the Alpine Club. With Illustrations by
Whymper and Marcus Stone. Crown Bvo, 10s. 6d. 2nd Edition.

Anderse?i {Bans Christian) Fairy Tales. With Illustrations in
Colours by E, V. B. Royal 4to, cloth, 25^-.

Animals Fainted by Thei?iselves. Adapted from the French of
Balzac, Georges Sands, &c.', with 200 Illustrations by Grandville.
8vo, cloth extra, gilt, \os. 6d.

Art Education. See " Illustrated Text Books."

Art in the Mountains : The Sto?y of the Passion Play. By
Henry Blackburn, Author of "Artists and Arabs," "Breton
Folk," &c. With numerous Illustrations, and an Appendix for
Trnvellers, giving the Expenses of the Journey, Cost of Living, Routes
from Lngland, &c , Map, and Programme for 1880. 4to, cloth, loj-. 6d.

■*Of the many previous accounts of the play, none, we are disposed to think,
recalls that edifying and impressive spectacle with the same clearness and
vividness as Mr. Blackburn's volume." — Guardian.

"He writes in excellent taste, and is interesting from the first page to the
last." — SatuTciay Review.

Art of Reading Aloud {The) in Pulpit, Lecture Room, or Private
Reunions. By G. Vandenhoff, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.
A?'t Treasures in the South Kensi?igton Museum. PubHshed,
with the sanction of the Science and Art Department, in Monthly
Parts, each containing 8 Plates, price is. In this series are included
representations ol Decorative Art of all countries and all times from
objects in tlie South Kensington Museum, under the following classes: —

Sculpture : Works in Marble, Ivory, and Terra-Cotta.

Bronzes : Statuettes, Medallions, Plaques, Coins.

Decorative Painting and Mosaic.

List of Fublicahons,

Decorative Furniture and Carved Wood-Work.

Ecclesiastical Metal- Work.

Gold and Silversmiths' Work and Jewellery.

Limoges and Oriental Enamels.

Pottery of all Counlries.

Glass : Oriental, Venetian, and German.

Ornamental Iron-Work : Cutlery.

Textile Fabrics : Embroidery and Lace.

Decorative Bookbi tiding.

Original Designs for Works of Decorative Art.

Views of the Courts and Galleries of the Museum.

Architectural Decorations of the Museum.
The Plates are carefully printed in alias 8vo (13 in. by 9 in.), on
thick ivory-tinted paper ; and are included in a stout wrapper, orna-
mented with a drawing from " The Genoa Doorway '' recently acquired
by the Museum.

Asiatic Turkey : being a Na7'7-ative of a Journey from Bombay
to the Bosphorus. By Grattan Geary, Editor of the Times of India.
2 vols., crown 8vo, cloth extra, with many Illustrations, and a Route
Map, 28j-.

Australia?! Abroad {The). B7'ancJies fvm the Main Routes
Round the World. Comprising the Author's Route through Japan,
China, Cochin-China, Malasia, Sunda, Java, Torres Straits, Northern
Australia, New South Wales, South Australia, and New Zealand. By
James Hingston ("J. H." of \ki^ Melbourjie Argus). \\ ith Maps
and numerous Illustrations from Photographs. 2 vols., Svo, I4J-. each.

Autobiography of Sir G. Gilbert Scott, R.A., T.S.A., 6^r.
Edited by his Son, G. Gilbert Scott. With an Introduction by the
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List of Fublicaiions, 1 7

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20 SjJripson Low, Marstoji^ d^ Co.^s

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Memoirs of Madame de Remusat. 1802 — 1808. By her Grand-
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Me7i of Mark : a Galle?y of Contemp07'a7y Portraits of the most
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List of Publications.

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ATARES {Sir G. S., K. C.B) Narrative of a Voyage to the
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National Music of the World. By the late Henry F. Chor-
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Mary Anerley. By R. D. Blackmore, Author of " Lorna Doone,*'

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Prince Fortune and His Friends, x vols.

22 Sampson Low^ Marston^ 6^ Co.^s

Noble Words and Noble Deeds. Translated from the French of

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North American Review {The). Monthly, price 2s. 6d.

Notes on Fish and Fishing. By the Rev. J. J. Man ley, M.A.
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Nursery Playmates {Pri7iceof). 217 Coloured pictures for
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Old-Fashioned Girl. See Alcott.

Oliphant {Mrs.) hinocent. A Tale of Modern Life. By Mrs.
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Our Little Ones in Heaven. Edited by the Rev. H. Robbins.
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List of Publications. 23

pAINTERS of All Schools. By Louis Viardot, and other

"*• Writers. 500 pp., super-royal 8vo, 20 Full-page and 70 smaller
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Falliser {M?'s. ) A History of Lace, from the Earliest Period.

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Petites Leqo?is de Conversation et de Grammaire : Oral and

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Phillips (Z.) Dictionary of Biographical Reference. 8vo,
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Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetisi7t. By J. E. H.
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Pictwe Gallery of British Art {The). 38 Permanent Photo-
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P?'ejevalsky {N. M.) From Kiilja, across the Tian Shan to Lob-
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List of Piihlications . 2 5

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1. Sea-GuU Rock. By Jules Sandeau. Illustrated.

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